THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES
FROM THE LIBRARY OF
ELDSCIBEL
Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/allengreenoughsnOOalleiala
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
EDITED BY
J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. DOOGE
GINN & COMPANY BOSTON - NEW YORK + CHICAGO . LONDON
ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL
CopyriGHT, 1888, BY J, B. GREENOUGH anp J. H. ALLEN
CopPpyRIGHT, 1903, BY GINN & COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
310.7
The Atheneum Press
GINN & COMPANY» PRO- PRIETORS + BOSTON : U.S.A,
JOIPFIF
DA
208]
R420 PREFACE
THE present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888. This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance with principles that met with his full approval. The renum- bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer- tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough’s Gram- mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its method or its contents. ‘The editors have seen no occasion to change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica- tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis- factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement seemed possible.
In the matter of « hidden quantity” the editors have been even more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi- gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts
il
iv PREFACE
are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of comparatively slight interest except to special students of the arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the evidence seemed practically decisive.
The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer-. sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has codperated in the revision throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point.
SerremBer 1, 1903.
CONTENTS
PART I— WORDS AND FORMS
LETTERS AND SouNDS . . Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds Orthography, Syllables, Pronunciation Quantity and Accent . siwiee as Combinations; Phonetic Changes .
Worpbs AND THEIR Forms . Nae ete vga eee Parts of Speech . . . ee EE Inflection; Root, Stem, eid Base a aes Gender, Number, and Case . oe:
Deciension or Nouns :
General Rules of Deslension ;
First Declension .
Second Declension . aeons beret wae ts
PRUETT UROL SION <2 <a vee oad Pai “ete ee Ren.) Sing ele Mute Stems... ER LR Bee ee ORS Liquid and Nasal Stems Peas oe Pure i-Stems : 5 gs Sees Mixed EL StCIOS ss. co er Ses Irregular Nouns Sale ee eee PSO NORUS= = 23. Ne Gcel sortaitien ete fe
Rules of Gender . Fourth Declension . Fifth Declension . 7 Defective and Variable othe ‘ Ns INDIO OF POrsOns a) > oe ee een INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES First and Second Declensions Third Declension et Wes eae i ee a 2 - ROIISREINGE 8, Ro a 6 Pig Cat ites hoy gta ae gy is) ae ne a Numerals . ateeate INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS . 3 Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demnonsteative Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite . Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) .
SeeneReeOn OF VERBS 6 as 8 en ew Inflection . . ees eye Signification : Voice, Mood, Tense ete Pee ORIN MAES os oe wea, oe ae
v
CONTENTS
Forms: Stem and ee The VerbSum .. . oor Regular Verbs ..
The Four Conjugations; Principal Parts =
Formation of the Three Stems Synopsis of the Verb . . . Peculiarities of Conjugation . First Conjugation ; Second Conjugation. . Third Conjugation . Fourth Conjugation . : = Verbs in -i6 of the Third Conjugation , Deponent Verbs . : “ 7 Periphrastic Conjugations Irregular Verbs . ois Defective Verbs... . Impersonal Verbs . 3 Classified Lists of Verbs
PARTICLES
Rate tr Sot shire Prepositions
Conjunctions .
Interjections .
ForRMATION OF Worps .. .
Roots and Stems. é ; Suffixes: Primary; Significant Bindings : Derivation of Nouns .... Derivation of Adjectives .
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives
Derivation of Verbs. . . Compound Words . . .
PART II—SYNTAX
Intropucrory Note . . Tue SENTENCE. . 3 Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, ‘ete. ;
Agreement: the Four Concords Nouns: Apposition ; Predicate Agreement
ADJECTIVES .
Rules of Agreement Special Uses .
PRONOUNS .. eae fhe
Personal and Dearvoniraties ee LSE Sy ole ally NES a Age AMOREEUO Aaah Se eet eg) g's lg his
CONTENTS
RIBIVOs Sen ease et SoS RS Ses BRC e ei ta es gs Re OC lee bate Ating-and ‘alter 5) c6. saa: + MEPS MERE S55 ets 3 Verb and Subject, Tncomplete Bantences. Particites: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives . QUESTIONS .. 6 et ete CoNnSTRUCTION OF Casas ao) errr aut Introductory Note ......
NOMINATIVE CAgW: «4% 2 3 + 6: % 8
MOCRIIVR CAGE. Foye. eT
IGRNITIVE- CASE. os) (6 ces Se Genitive with Nouns .... .
Possessive Genitive . Genitive of Material, of Quality .
. Partitive Genitive - Objective Genitive
Genitive with Adjectives .
Genitive with Verbs Verbs of Remembering snd Forgetting. Verbs of Reminding .
Verbs of Accusing, Condeuning, Sad Acquiting ‘
Verbs of Feeling. ... . Interest and réfert. Verbs of Plenty and Want; Special Verte Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, ete: Dative Case . P Indirect Object with. Transitives: Indirect Object with Intransitives . Dative cf Possession . .. J Dative of the Agent . Dative of Reference ... . asthical Dative: <s/.0%s 6 we Dative of Separation, . Dative of the Purpose or End Dative with Adjectives AGOUSATIVE CASE ©. . « « «
Ditect. Objects. 6 oe 4s Cognate Accusative .. . Two Accusatives . . ;
Idiomatic and Special Uses ABLATIVE CASE. :
Uses of the Ablative Proper : Peer an?” Ablative of Separation . . . Sears ete late ae Ablative of Source and Material . Sih ee Ns Ablative. of Caine: << ox) a+ 6% fae ss ot ek eats
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
PA DIBEIIG OF AGUNG oe ee ow es ie 8 eo RO Ablative of Comparison .. ... +. +s + «© « «© « « 264,265
Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental. . ..... . . . 256-265 Ablative of Means or Instrument ........ . . 256-258 ADiative of Manner a9: ic yes Ptel st) aie ieee aes 258 Ablative of Accompaniment . . . ... . «6 - + » 258,259 Ablative of Degree of Difference ....... . . « 259,260 DIAS VO OE QURIIOG oS ge lg av ee on reinces) oS ge ah leer is 260 Abiaiveiol Price.) 4 <2 8 + 6 ee wo eh, Se ee Ablative of Specification . . . 2. . 2. «© «© © « «© « « 262,268 WAblative Abeointes 0) 6 eta 8 8 ew oe 8 we fo ot eee
Uses of the Ablative as Locative . .......+24e-. 265 SIME EN DPE TAGH S65 <p. a, oh ce), Use <br ie) wet cw set comncwtl £ou Me. test Re rgh ae SPecrAL Uses Or PREPOSITIONS . 9% 5 0 6 «oe Sg Stee BIR ZT SU NTAS OR THR AVERB is ge ee. (e Meritetl wills ute Wide Sg eee
Moops .. ae) Spire Soa ah ee ie, jer Dee, a TROUT ae ORI re Tae ae Introductory Note eat a eS er CT Le A InDICATIVE Moop. . . : i. Bah, Roads Radal ser ee 277
SUBJUNCTIVE IN Vasu renews EES a let els, Ane aee Hortatory Subjunctive. ...) .siiente tl te) Serie ON. 1S RBS 270
Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions .......... 279 Optative Subjuncthves taceccd fade eit ON) eels A RRR DIGUDOPAUTS DUDIINCHYVO 6 4 ks ee 281 Potential SGManchyve <x a a we we. lw ee at? IMPERATIVE Moop. . . sibs teith an Febe-et nue! he OC Re ees Prohibition (Negative Command) . Pi date dieg ho Bastar te 285
Inrinitive Moop .. . : FA aay Pere Ba TREGUIVG BS NOUR eos, sg Ae shew ten tes. Ss ate Se Infinitive with Impersonals . . . . . . . . + « « « « 287,288 Complementary Infinitive. . . oi, /00 | ehiitan., w HSE a eee ede) eee ee
Infinitive with Subject ‘Accusative . : oe haere dy athe 290 Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives woes 16. Bias) 0 acs. oe een ao L PERC MROrT SOMDUAVS 6 oho) sa) 5 emer) rem. ee de, 0 RD 292 PEMOTIGRL SHUUIMVE 6 2, soo! 5, em wos att te Bes 292 TENSES . . « Bp wy ie lite cela bs ad af pth US Aen Ret | ae koe Semen ets Introductory Note ete ee Se a Veh eV re Seah oe 293
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE . 6. 6 8) ee 6 wt ee) > 298-801 EPHBONG OHS ies 120 is) on ae ak ve Rb a a, Bi WE. ei eS ne Oe RIMMGETOCE Tense Ss ecF ies WS ca ed ew I SR
OPUATER POLLING yon ipa ei, er ool. brie iog bj, fobs eur wy. Rion et pce MVC a ROUND 298 PRELOCEE DONBO1 se) 6 etre, ows. e Uhe cer lee ceiSer) Sees Litera peeeOe ELIOT ONAGT Gy ce mash hwy tel our ey Vie nie ie? ven Neo” SgneR 800 eMC “POLIOCk TENGE: jaja veiw lh oy Vantiek Sitiecys fee Watley WS 800 ALOT AG Sie a oh ek tee ic, SO ree Tee la eae 801
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE . . . « © s « «© «© «© « «© « 801-806 MeMONOD Of TONGS oo ee, ke. Oe we le ee at OR OS
CONTENTS
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. . . ». « «© «© «© «
PARTICIPLES .. Gel ge ie-caa ie ag te eee ea erie Distinctions of Series eee gE le Bee oes Wses-on Participles’ (oe. “s! sa Ls) ar Ace eee
Future Active Participle . . . Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) GERUND AND GERUNDIVE . .... . SuPINE .. ba aes ConpDiITIONAL Santunona Say) aA rans Introductory Note... .. . Protasis and Apodosis . eee Classification of Conditions . . . Simple Present and Past Conditions Future Conditions . . te Conditions Contrary to Fact . Sie General Conditions . ae Conditional Relative Clauses. ire Condition Disguised . . Condition Omitted . Complex Conditions Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) Use of Siand its Compounds . Somamecye CLAUSES.) 3-6 ee en ees DRY CiausEs OF PROovISO CiausEs OF Purpose (FINAL ‘Ciavss)
Crauses oF CHARACTERISTIC. . . : Ciauses or Resuitt (CONSECUTIVE Cuavses) . Causan CLAUSES. . .« 2s s+ © we ee
TEMPORAL CLAUSES . Ubi, ut, cum, quand6, as Indefinite Relatives. Postquam, ubi, ut, simulatque .... .. - TOMBE & 6555 oey Geet ge tay ee el Cum Causal or Concessive . . $ Antequam and priusquaam . . . . - - « +
Dom, donec, and quoad.. ..- 2 2 6 eh i ee CLAUSES WITH quin AND quéminus . . . SupsTantive Cuauses . . . . . s. + « «
Introductory Note : Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) .
Indicative with quod...) ew we Indirect Questions . ai Ye A PRGIRAOT DISCOURSE ss, <0 hocie ess, a! wer es oe
POiroauctory Note. 6866 kas Se, Oy eer Fes Declaratory Sentences. . . . « « © « « « « Subordinate Clauses . . . « «0 0 0 0 8
374-377
x CONTENTS
Tenses of the Infinitive Tenses of the Subjunctive Questions in Indirect Discourse Commands in Indirect Discourse Conditions in Indirect Discourse INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES F Informal Indirect Discourse -‘Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) Important Russ oF SynTAxX ORDER OF WorpDs General Rules Special Rules ; Structure of the Period
PROSODY
QUANTITY RHYTHM . Introductory Note rie Measures of Rhythm; Feet . ae The Musical Accent ; Cesura; Dieresis . VERSIFICATION . : : The Verse ; Semonion anit Eliion > Dactylic Verse Dactylic Hexameter . Elegiac Stanza; Other Dactylic Verses TAIN DIG “VOTRO. 5. 5, bp. a ET Oe Iambic Trimeter . .. . Other Iambic Measures Trochaic Verse Mixed Measures . Logacedic Verse . Metres of Horace Index to the Metres of ioiaés Other Lyric Poets Miscellaneous Measures EARLY Prosopy
MISCELLANEOUS , Reckoning of Time. Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity
GLossaRY OF TERMS.
INDEX OF VERBS .
InDEX OF WoRDS AND icaeace Latin AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS PARALLEL REFERENCES.
401-405 405-409 405, 406 406-409
409 410-426 410, 411 411-414 411, 412
425, 426 426, 427
428-431 428, 429 429-431
432-435 436-444 445-475 476, 477 479-490
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH’S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
xi
ARAN RAS AS)
,
~
re
LATIN GRAMMAR
Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words when joined together as parts of the sentence; Prosody of their arrange- ment in metrical composition.
PART FIRST—WORDS AND FORMS
THE ALPHABET
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U, and W.
Nore 1.— The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of our era.
Norr 2.—The Latin names of the consonants were as follows: —B, be (pronounced bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N,en; P, pe (pay); Q, gu (Koo); R, er; S, es; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.
a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
Note. —In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be- fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthagd. Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming (from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero’s time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
b. I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5).
Nore. —V originally denoted the vowel sound u (00), and F stood for the sound of our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and v for consonant u : — iis, vir, iuvenis
1
2 WORDS AND FORMS [ss 2-4| 94!
5, Classification of, Sounds 9
2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, 0, u, y. yo
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, | jy) vi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol-.| ; lowing the other in the same syllable. \ :
3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd).. Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur ' bs that is heard in vowels; voiceless consonants lack this murmur. '
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, Z, consonant i, y. in
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x.
4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table: :
LABIALS DENTALS PALATALS
Voiced (mediae) b d g | Mutes ; Voiceless (tenués) p t c (k, q)
Aspirates ph th ch Nasals m n n (before ec, g, q) Liquids lr Fricatives (Spirants) he 8, Z Sibilants 8, Z
Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz); h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).?
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching or approaching the palate.®
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the breath passes through the nose.
} |
Semivowels Vv consonant i | |
|
|
|
|
1 Strictly a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
2 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
8 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or ris- ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth). Compare the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before 4, 0, or u.
§§ 5, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3
5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable! Con- sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v) that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
Nore 1.—The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant sounds of i and u, but used each letter (Iand V) witha double value. In modern books i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds; but in printing in capitals J and U are avoided: —IVLIVS (Iulius). The characters J and U are only slight modifications of the charactersland V. The ordinary English sounds of j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v in the pronunciation of some persons.
Note 2.—In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso- © nant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, cOnsuétus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In- these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.?
" ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find lubet, vortd, as earlier, and libet, vert, as later forms. Other variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus.
The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics.
a. After y(consonant u),o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, servos), and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first century of our era.
b. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period; in the second cen- tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words : —
cum, older quom ;° equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur; similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.
Norr.— In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.
c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, 0, or u, an i was developed as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con- sonant i. In such cases but one i was written: as, aid (for fai-id), maius (for tmai-ius), péius (for tpei-ius).
1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.
2 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.
8 The spelling quum is very late and without authority.
4 WORDS AND FORMS [$$ 6-8
d. Similarly in compounds of iacid but one i was written (as, con-icié, not con-iicid); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i followed by vowel i (see § 11. e).
Nore. —Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike; hence niintid was later spel’ed with ac and dicid with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, aréna for haréna) or mistakenly written (as, hiimor for imor),
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open e (about like English e in there), and similarly oe after a time became a long close e (about like the English ey in they) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with €: as, coena or caena for the correct form céna,
Syllables
7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs : —
a-ci-é, mo-né, fi-li-us, fe-rd-ci-ta-te.
a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated : —
pa-ter, mi-li-tés, in-id-ri-a, di-vi-d6 ; mit-td, tol-16.
Norte 1.— Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to di-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.
Nors 2.— A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open; all others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
- &. In compounds the parts are separated : — ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerné, du-plex, di-sté.
Pronunciation
8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre- sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
VowEtLs: 4 as in father; 4 as in idea. é as eh? (prolonged), or a in date; é as eh? (clipped) or e in net. I as in machine; i as in holiest or sit. 6 as in holy; 5 as in obey. ii as oo in boot; ti as 00 in foot.
y between u and i(French u or German ii).
DieHTHoncs: ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in boy; eu as eh’oo; au like ow in now; ui as 00’ee.
§§ 8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 5
Consonants are the same as in English, except that —
ce and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem.
S as in sea, lips, never as in ease.
Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing.
n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the preceding vowel, which was also lengthened; and final m in an unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on the preceding vowel.
ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con- venience, be neglected); but ph probably became like (or nearly like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced to distinguish it from p.
z is as dz in adze.
bs is like ps; bt is like pt.
Nore. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in English (as, Julius Cesar); and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum; vive voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
Quantity
9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, — long and short.
a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
10. Vowels are either long or short by nature, and are pro- nounced accordingly (§ 8).
a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in via, nihil.
b. A diphthong is long: as in aédés, foédus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong: as in excliidé (from tex-claud6).
c. A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nil (from nihil).
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as in cOnstans, inferd, magnus.
Nore. — But the quantity of the vowel-before gn is not certain in all cases.
e. A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short: as in amandus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (A, 6, etc.), and short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs at once (a, é, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
Notre. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter (called an apex), as, A; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An
{ made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i, But none of these devices came into general use,
6 WORDS AND FORMS [§ 11
11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position of the accent and in versification.
a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long by nature: as, ma-ter, aes, au-la.
b. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (except a mute before 1 or.r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short: as, est, ter-ra, sax-um, Me-zen-tius.
Notre.— When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis- tinctly. Thus in mit-té both t’s should be pronounced as in owt-talk (not merely a single t as in better).
c. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said to be common.
Nore 1.—In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the vowel. In syllables of ‘‘common”’ quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi- nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable could become long.
Nore 2.—In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, the quantity in verse is determined by the following word: if this begins with a vowel the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation; if it begins with a consonant the syllable is long by position.
Norte 3.—In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar- ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. N. 2).
d. A syllable whose vowel is a, e, 0, or u, followed by consonant i, is long whether the vowel itself is long or short: as, 4-i6, m4-ior, pé-ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book-by a circumflex on the vowel.
Norr.— The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound (vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, 4-id (for fai-id), ma-ior (for tmai-ior). See §6.c.
é. In some compounds of iacié (as, in-icid) the consonant i of the simple verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl- lable was long by position: as, in-icid (for in-iicid). See § 6. d.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.
f. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is known to be long.
Notr.— The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden. It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi-
dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels known to be long is marked.
§§ 12-14] ACCENT T
Accent
12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable: as, Ro'ma, fi'dés, tan'go.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult 1} if that is long (as, ami’cus, moné@'tur, contin'git); otherwise on the Antepenult (as, do/minus, a’licris, dissocia’bilis).
a. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dé4’que, 4maré’ve, tibi‘ne, ita’que (and... so), as distinguished from i’taque (therefore). So (accord- ing to some) ex’inde, ec’quand6, etc.
Exceptions: 1. Certain apparent compounds of facid retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefa’cit, calefa’cit (see § 266. a).
Note. — These were not true compounds, but phrases.
2. In thesecond declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Corné‘li, Vergi‘li, inge’ni (see § 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com- plete words: as, illi’c for illi’ce, prédi’c for prédiice, sati’n for sati’sne.
Combinations
13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together, are written as one : —
inusquisque (iinus quisque), siquis (si quis), quaré (qua ré), quamobrem (quam ob rem ; cf. quas ob rés), réspiblica (rés piblica), iisiiirandum (iis iijrandum), paterfamilias (pater familias).
Norr.— Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the old poets, before est in hom6st (homé est), periculumst (periculum est), ausust (ausus est), qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin’, scin’ for visne, scisne, sis (si.vis), sddés (si audés), siltis (si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he’s, I’ve, thow’rt.
Phonetic Changes
14, Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies, the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic), from which are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise
1 The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but twe
8 WORDS AND FORMS [$$ 14, 15
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the most important are Italian, French, Provengal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in- crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera- ture; that is, about B.c. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical period (B.c. 80-a.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is mainly this that is described in this book.
15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms of classical Latin may be mentioned the following : —
Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedilis for old aidilis), old oi became oe or it (inus for old oinos), and old ou became & (diicd for old doucd).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i
or e, and ae similarly appears as i: — facid, factum, but cénficid, cinfectum ; caedd, but occidd, and similarly cecidi, perfect of caed6 (cf. cadé, occidd ; cecidi, perfect of cadé).
Notr. — This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl- lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12) became established. The original Indo-Européan accent, however, was not limited by either of these principles; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : —
cdgd for tco-agd; promd for tpro-emd; nil for nihil; débed for tdé-hibed (tdé-habed). Consonant Changes
4, An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing first through the sound of (English) z:— eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.}
Notsr. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honds), from the analogy of hondris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d, or s: as, equestris for tequettris, casus for tcadtus (cf. 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found : —
cessi for tced-si; summus for tsupmus; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16).
1 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (ef. lose).
§§ 15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : —
Thus, parilia for palilia (from Palés); meridiés for tmedidiés; natiralis with suffix -Alis (after r), but popularis with -aris (after 1).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plénu(s) fidéi.
Nore. — Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero’s time. Hespeaks of theomis- sion of final s before a word beginning with a consonant as “‘ countrified ”(subristicum).
8. A final consonant often disappears: as, virgd for fvirgén; lac for flact ; cor for tcord. ‘
9. G,c, and h unite with a following s to form x: as, réx for trégs; dux for tducs ; traxi for jtrahsi.1
10. Gand h before t become ¢: as, réctum for tregtum ; actum for tagtum ; tractum for {trahtum.?
11, Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed: as, simpsi for jsimsi; €mptum for témtum.
16. Incompounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad, acc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com- (comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons. i, 4, s, t, cons. v; we find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; cd- in conectd, conived, cOnitor, cOniibium. In usually changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following ¢, f, g, or p; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p; surr-, summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant. Circum often loses itsm before i. Thes of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi- lated to a following f; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef- before f (also ecf-). The d of red and séd is generally lost before a consonant. The preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.
Vowel Variations
17, The parent language showed great variation in the vowel sounds of kindred words.’
a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, 0; e, €), sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, 0; i, ae) :*—
tegs, I cover, toga, a robe; pendé, I weigh, pondus, weight ; fidés, faith, fidus, faithful, foedus, a treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, ddnum, a gift; regs, I rule, réx, a king; dux, a leader, dicé (for older doucd), Ilead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven ; bind, bound, band ; sing, sang, sung; ete.
1 Really for ttraghsi. The h of trahd represents an.older palatal sound (see § 19).
2 Really for ttraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).
3 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits. 4In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
10 WORDS AND FORMS [$$ 18, 19
Kindred Forms
~ 18, Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif- ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre- serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.
19. The most important correspondences in consonants between Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following
table: —1 LATIN ENGLISH p: pater f: father, earlier fader? f from bh: ferd, frater b: to bear, brother Dp: us ©. Inbet, libet v, f: love, lief t: ti, tenuis th: thou, thin? d: duo, dent- t: two, tooth f from dh: facid d: do d “ ‘+ medius d: mid Dy tt ne 2a ker d: red c: cord-, corni h: heart, horn qu: quod wh: what g: genus, gustus c, k, ch: kin, choose h (from gh): hortus, haedus y; g: yard, goat cons. i: iugum y: yoke v: ventus, ovis w: wind, ewe
v from gv: vivus (for tgvivos), } qu, ¢, ki quick, come
venid (for tgvemid).
Nore 1.— Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, niv- (for {sniv-), Eng. snow; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose.
Nore 2.— From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care- fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus facid is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb comes Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.
1The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates (bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f); for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has 4); for gh, Latin -h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid- erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm’s Law for the shifting of mutes.
2 The th in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latint. The primitive Germanic form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the aecent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the consonant underwent a secondary change to 4.
8 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st; as in Latin sté, English stand.
§ 20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar; Roma, Rome; domus, a hotse ; virtiis, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common.
Notr.— An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, audacia, boldness ; senectiis, oldage. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba, crowd ; exercitus, army.
b6. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good ; fortis, brave, strong.
NotE 1.—A Participleis a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, — Caesar consul creatus, Cesar having been elected consul.
NotE 2.— Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed aJike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com- mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.
ec. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; qui, who; nds, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
d. A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum, I am; amat, he loves.
Notr.—In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any-
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. ‘Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
e. An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute: as, splendidé mendax, gloriously false ; hodié natus est, he was born to-day.
Norr.— These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
f. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence: as, per agros it, he goes over the fields ; € pliribus inum, one out of many.
Notr.— Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex- pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
12 WORDS AND FORMS [$§ 20-22
g- A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without affecting their grammatical relations: as, et, and; sed, but.
Norr.— Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donec, until.
h. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of speech. Thus, —heus, halloo! 6, oh!
Nore. —Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victis, woe to the conquered (alas for the conquered) !
INFLECTION
21. Latin is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations. a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination : — vox, a voice ; vicis, of a voice ; voc, I call; vocat, he calls ; vocet, let him call ; vocavit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched.
6. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vécis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng- lish : —
frangit, he breaks or is breaking ; frégit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he bites ; momordit, he bit.+
22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par- ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension, and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con- jugated. :
Norn.— Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections.
$§ 23-25] ROOT, STEM, AND BASE 13
23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are not: inflected and are called Particles.
Norr.— The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter- rogative), non, né (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.
Root, Stem, and Base
24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.!
Thus the stem vic- denotes voice ; with -s added it becomes véx, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vicis, and signifies of a voice.
Notrer.— The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari- son with other forms is necessary to determine it.
25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin- dred languages.”
Thus the root of the stem viéc- is voc, which does not mean fo call, or I call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With 4-it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes the stem of vocatus (called); with atidn- it becomes the stem of vocatidnis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of véx, vic-is (a voice: that by which we call). This stem viéc-, with -alis added, means belonging to a voice; with -iila, a little voice.
Notr.—In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning. .
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa- rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -€ (as, rege), 2 For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tishthami, Greek torn, Latin sistere and stare, German fteben, and English stand.
14 WORDS AND FORMS [$§ 26-30
26. The Stem may be thesame as the root: as induc-is, of a leader, fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root—
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, shave); rég-is, of a king (REG, direct); voc-is, of a voice (voc, call).
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in fuga-, stem of fuga, flight (FUG + 4-); regi-s, you rule (REG + stem-ending ¥,-); sini-t, he allows (st + n°/,-).1
3. By two or more of these methods: as in dici-t, he leads (puc + stem- ending *,-).
4, By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)
27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection: as, serv- in servus; méns- in ménsa; ign- in ignis.
a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, rég- in rég-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of ménsa, ménsa-; that of ignis, igni-.
28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com- bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164) developed.
GENDER
29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as, puer (M.), boy; puella (¥.), girl; réx (M.), king; régina (F.), queen.
NorE 1.— Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliéns, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine: as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
Note 2.— A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging toa class: as, Mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
Nore 3.— Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus (M.), aciés (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; copiae (x. plur.), troops; senatus (m.), senate; cohors (¥.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.
1 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.
§§ 30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15
b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.
General Rules of Gender
31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine: — pater, father ; Iilius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; Tanua- rius, January ; Apenninus, the Apennines. Notr.— Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mé€nsis, month, being understood: as, Ilanuarius, January.
a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names Léthé and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain.
6. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender of their termination: as, Alpés (F.), the Alps; Soracte (N.).
32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab- stract Qualities, are feminine : —
mater, mother ; lalia, Julia; Rima, Rome; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus, pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; véritas, truth.
a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulm6, Gabii (plur.) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Ilyricum.
6. A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina- tion: as, centauréum (N.), centaury; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot ; opalus (M.), opal.
Notr.— The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina-- tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their géns or house (see § 108. 0).
33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are newter :—
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know) ; triste valé, a sad farewell ; hic ipsum diii, this very ‘‘ long.”
34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord- ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: as, exsul, exile; bis, ox or cow; paréns, parent.
Notr.— Several names of animals haye a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpés, fox, is always feminine.
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS | [$§ 35-37
NUMBER AND CASE
35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nomina- tive, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.
a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of.
c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.
d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It is used also with many of the prepositions.
e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
f. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g- All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object- cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (casts obliqui).
h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where: as, Romae, at Rome ; rari, in the country.
Nore.— Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36, Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ- ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan- guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff.).
37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by
the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular.
Decu. 1 CHARACTERISTIC 4 Gen. Srna. ae 2 6 iT 3 { or a Consonant is 4 ui iis 5 é éI
a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
§§ 38, 39] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS 17
38. The following are General Rules of Declension : —
a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have -e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs from the nominative.
b. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.
ec. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m; the Accusative plural in -s.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in -i.
e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
f. The Genitive plural always ends in -um.
g- Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is short, except in the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is Jong in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in plural cases.
Case-endings of the Five Declensions
39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are the following : —!
Dect. I Dect. II Dect. III Dect. IV Dect. V SINGULAR F. M. ON. M.,F. N. M. N. F. N us -um “Ss -us -t -6s ai Sg (modified stem) GEN. -ae i -is -iis -&i (-é) Dat. -ae -6 I -ui(-i) -ii -éi(-6) Acc. -am -um-um -em(-im) (likenom.) -um i -em ABL. -a -6 -e (-t) i -G Voc. -a -e -um (like nom.) -us -~is«=-Es PLURAL N.V. -ae i -a -és -a, -ia -iis -ua -é6s GEN. -arum -6rum -um, -ium -uum -6rum D.As. -is -is -ibus -ibus(-ubus) -ébus Acc. -as -O8 -a -&s (-is) -a, -ia -iis -ua -és
1 For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see under the several declensions.
18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$$ 40-43
FIRST DECLENSION (4-STEMS)
40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends ina-. The Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in Greek nouns.
41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : —
stella, r., star Stem stella-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS Nom. stella a star -a Gen. stellae of a star ’ -ae Dat. stellae to or for.a star -ae Acc. — stellam a star -am As. stella with, from, by, etc. a star a PLURAL
Nom. stellae stars -ae Gen. stellarum of stars -Arum Dar. _ stellis _ to or for stars -is Acc. stellas stars -s Asx. _ stellis with, from, by, etc. stars -Is
a. The Latin has no article; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or simply star.
Gender in the First Declension
42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. Soa few family or personal names: as, Miiréna, Dolabella, Scaevola!; also, Hadria, the Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension 43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -ai (dissyllabic), which
is occasionally found: as, aulai. The same ending sometimes occurs in the . dative, but only as a diphthong.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning Jittle left hand; but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine. Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.
§§ 43, 44] FIRST DECLENSION (4-STEMS) 19
6b. An old genitive in -As is preserved in the word familias, often used in the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patrés familias or familiarum). \
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae; for the plural in -is (cf. p- 34, footnote): as, Romae, at Rome; Athénis, at Athens.
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -drum, espe- cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of 4neas, and in compounds with -cdla and -géna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum, celes- tials ; Trdiugenum, sons of Troy; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma.
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre- sponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son (deis, filiis). So rarely with other words, as, liberta, freed-woman; miila, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia.
Norte 1.— The old ending of the ablative singular (-4d) is sometimes retained in early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda).
Norte 2.— In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis (as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -dia (as, Bais from Baiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
44, Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court); but others retain traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
Electra, ¥F. synopsis, F. art of music, F. Nom. Electra (-A) epitomé miisica (-€) Gren. Electrae epitomés miusicae (-és) Dar. Electrae epitomae miisicae Acc. Electram (-an) epitomén miisicam (-én) Ast. Electra epitomé musica (-€) Andromache, F. Aineas, M. Persian, M. Nom. Andromaché (-a) Aenéas Persés (-a) Gen. Andromachés (-ae) Aenéae Persae Dar. Andromachae Aenéae Persae Acc. Andromachén (-am) Aenéan(-am) _—_— Pers&én (-am) Ast. Andromaché (-4) Aenéa Persé (-a)
Voc, Andromaché (-a) Aenéa (-a) Persa
20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 44-46
Anchises, M. son of Aineas, M. comet, M. Nom. Anchisés Aeneadés (-a) cométés (-a) Grex. Anchisae Aeneadae cométae Dar. Anchisae Aeneadae cométae Acc. Anchisén (-am) Aeneadén cométén (-am) Ast. Anchisé (-a) Aeneadé (-&) cométa (-€) Voc. Anchisé (-a, -a) Aeneadé (-a) cométa
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants or arts: as, crambé, cabbage; musicé, music. Most have also regular Latin forms: as, cométa; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular: as, cométae, -arum, etc.
b. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions: as, Bodtae (genitive of Bodtés, -is), Thiicydidas (accusative plu- ral of Thicydidés, -is). See § 52. a and § 81.
Nore. — The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Scipiadés, descendant of the Scipios, is found in Horace. :
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 8-: as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave), bello- (stem of bellum, war).
a. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 6 being weakened to ti (see §§ 6. a, 46. n.?).
6b. In most nouns whose stem ends in rd- the s is not added in the Nomi- native, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r,! if not already present: as, ager, stem agrd-?; cf. puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions : erus, hesperus, iiniperus, moérus, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus, virus, and many Greek nouns.
ec. The stem-vowel 6 has a variant form é,° which is preserved in the Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us: as, servé, vocative of servus, slave.
Notr.—In composition this € appearsasi. Thus, —belli-ger, warlike (from bell%/.-, stem of bellum, war).
46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om) are thus declined : — 1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
2 Compare Greek dypés, which shows the original 0 of the stem. 8 By so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a).
§§ 46, 47] SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS) 21
servus, M., slave bellum, n., war Pompéius, m., Pompey STEM servo- Stem bello- Srem Pompéio- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS CASE-ENDINGS Nom. servus (-0s8) -us (-08) bellum -um Pompéius Gren. servi i belli i Pompéi Dar. —serv6 -6 bell6 6 Pompéi6 Acc. servum(-om) -um(-om) bellum -um Pompéium ABL. serv6 6 bell6 -6 Pompéié Voc. serve -e bellum -um Pompéi (-€i) PLURAL
Nom. servi i bella -a Pompéi Gen. servGrum -6rum bell6rum -6Grum Pompéiérum Dat. servis -is bellis -is Pompéis Acc. servés -68 bella a Pompéiés ABL. servis -is bellis -is Pompé€is
Norte 1.— The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -0s, -om, and these were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornélio for Cornélios, Cornéliom.
Norte 2.— Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu toc before u. Thus, —ecus (earlier equos), equi, equd, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.
47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de- clined : —
puer, m., boy ager, M., field vir, M., man STEM puero- STEM agro- ¢ STEM Viro- SINGULAR ; CASE-ENDINGS Nom. puer ager vir GEN. pueri agri viri i Dar. puerd agro ; vir6 -6 Acc. puerum agrum virum -um Ast. puerd agrd vird -6 PLURAL Nom. __ pueri agri viri i GEN. puer6rum agr6rum vir6rum -6rum Dar. _ pueris agris ' -viris Se Acc, puer6s agrés virds -68 ABL. __ pueris agris viris -is
Nore.— When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; other- wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 48, 49
Gender in the Second Declension
48. Nouns ending in -us (-0s), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end- ing in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -us (-os) are Feminine: as, Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following: alvus, belly ; carbasus, linen (pl. carbasa, sails, n.) ; colus, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, winnowing-shovel.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctus (F. ), the Polar Bear ; methodus (r.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neuters) is the same as the nominative: pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has a rare nominative and accusative plural pelagé.
Norr.— The nominative plural neuter cété, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative singular cétus occurs in Vitruvius.
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -i: as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at Corinth; for the plural, in -is: as, Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
b. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age, in a single -1: as, fili, of a son; Pompéi, of Pompey (Pompéius); but the accent of the nominative is retained: as, ingé’ni, of genius.
c. Proper names in -ius have -i in the vocative, retaining the accent of the nominative: as, Vergill. So also, filius, son ; genius, divine guardian: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occa- sionally used as nouns: as, Lacedaemonie, O Spartan.
Norse. — Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie: as, Lyrcius, vocative Lyrcie.
d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead of -Orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods; virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money, measure, and weight: as, Sévirum, of the Seviri ; nummum, of coins ; iigerum, of acres.
é. The original ending of the ablative singular (4d) is sometimes found in early Latin: as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaed), Cneius.
f. Proper names in -dius, -éius, -dius (as, Aurunculéius, B61), are declined like Pompéius.
1 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably unknown to Cicero.
§§ 49-52] SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS) 23
g- Deus (M.), god, is thus declined : —
SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. deus dei (dif), di Gen. dei de6rum, deum Dar. ded deis (diis), dis Acc. deum deds ABL. ded deis (diis), dis
Norr.— The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said to have been dee; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47) : — adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law ; puer, boy ; socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; Liber, Bacchus.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural (§ 111. a), and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, licifer, morning star; - armiger, squire.
a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from fpuerus (regularly puer).
b. Vir, man, has genitive viri; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; ves- per, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening).
c€. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric names Hibér and Celtibér retain é throughout.
51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47) : —
ager, field, stem agro-; coluber, snake ; magister, master ;
aper, boar ; conger, sea eel ; minister, servant ;
arbiter, judge ; culter, knife ; oleaster, wild olive ; auster, south wind ; faber, smith ; onager (-grus), wild ass ; cancer, crab ; fiber, beaver ; scomber (-brus), mackerel. caper, goat; liber, book ;
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension
52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -0s, -3s, mas- culine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular : —
24 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 52-55
mythos, ™. Athis, m. Délos, F. lion, N. Sable Athos Delos Ilium SINGULAR
Nom. mythos Athés (-6) Délos Tlion Gex. mythi Athé (-) Deli Tliz Dar. mythd Athé Délé llié Acc. mython AthG6n (-um) Délon(-um) [lion Ast. mythd Athé Dél6 Lli6 Voc. mythe Athés Déle Tlion
a. Many names in -és belonging to the third declension have also a genitive in -I: as, Thiicydidés, Thicydidi (compare § 44. b).
6. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or Teucrus. ‘The name Panthis has the vocative Panthii (§ 81. 3).
ec. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter- mination -dn: as, Gedrgicin, of the Georgics.
d. The termination -oe (for Greek -ov) is sometimes found in the nomi- native plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and third declensions (see § 82).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND #STEMS)
53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, i, 4, y, c, 1, n, r, 8, t, x.
54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows: — a. Mute stems. b. Liquid and Nasal stems. a. Pure i-stems. b. Mixed i-stems.
I. Consonant Stems { II. 1-Stems {
55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem. The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi- fications of the stem, of which the most important are —
1. Combination of final consonants: as of ¢ (or g) and s to form x; dux, ducis, stem duc-; réx, régis, stem rég-.
2. Omission of a final consonant: as of a final nasal; led, lednis, stem leOn-; Oratid, Sratidnis, stem Oration-.
3. Omission of a final vowel: as of final i; calcar, calcaris, stem calcari-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable: as of a to e; princeps (for -caps), principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
§§ 56, 57] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS 25
CONSONANT STEMS Mute Stems
56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the Nominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before s: as, princep-s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s: as, miles (stem milit-), cistds (stem custdd-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x: as, dux (for tduc-s), réx (for trég-s).
a. In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina- tive and i in the stem: as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).
57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
princeps, c., chief radix, F., root miles, m., soldier STEM princip- STEM radic- STEM milit- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS Nom. _ princeps radix miles 8 Gen. _—s~principis radicis militis -is Dar. principi radici militi i Acc. principem radicem militem -em ABL. principe radice milite -e PLURAL Nom. principés radicés milités -és Gen. _—— principum radicum militum -um Dar. __ principibus radicibus militibus -ibus Acc. principés radicés milités -és Ast. _ principibus radicibus militibus -ibus custOs, c., guard dux, c., leader réx, M., king STEM ciistod- STEM duc- STEM rég- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS Nom. custds dux réx -8 Gen. custddis ducis régis -is Dat. _custddi duci régi i Acc. cist6dem ducem régem -em
Ast. ciistode duce rége -e
26 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 57-60
PLURAL Nom. custodés ducés régés 3 Gen. custddum ducum régum -um Dat. ciustddibus ducibus régibus -ibus Acc. custddés ducés régés -és AsL. custddibus ducibus régibus -ibus
a. In like manner are declined — ariés, -etis (M.), ram; comes, -itis (c.), companion; lapis, -idis (m.), stone ; itidex, -icis (m.), judge; cornix, -icis (F.), raven, and many other nouns. 58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But, —
a. Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute : as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in &t- from the Greek: as, poéma (stem poémat-).
_ 6. The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for tcapot).
59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows: —
cor, N.; heart caput, n., head poéma, N., poem
STEM cord- STEM capit- STEM poémat- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS Nom. cor caput poéma Gren. —cordis capitis potmatis -is Dat. cordi capiti poémati -i Acc. cor caput poéma ett Ast. corde capite poémate -e PLURAL Nom. corda capita poémata -a GEN. capitum poématum -um Dat. cordibus capitibus poématibus -ibus Acc. corda capita poémata -a Ast. cordibus capitibus poématibus -ibus
60. The following irregularities require notice : —
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poéma) frequently end in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -drum in the geni- tive plural; as, poématis (for poématibus), poématérum (for poématum).
6. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the gent tive plural (like cor). See § 103. g. 2.
§§ 61,62] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS 27
Liquid and Nasal Stems (J, , r)
61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following : —
1. Stems in dn- drop n in the nominative: as in legid, stem legidn-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original 6 in the nominative: as in virgd, stem virgin-.1
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nom- inative : as in cornicen, stem cornicin-.1
4, Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, pater, stem patr-.?
62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows: —
consul, m., consul 1e6, M., lion virgo, F., maiden pater, m., father
STEM consul- Stem ledn- STEM virgin- STEM patr- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS Nom. cdnsul led virgo pater — Gen. cdnsulis lednis virginis patris -is Dat. cdnsuli ledni virgini patri i Acc. cdnsulem leOnem virginem patrem -em Ast. cdnsule ledne virgine patre -e PLURAL Nom. cdnsulés lednés virginés patrés -és Gen. cdnsulum leGnum virginum patrum -um Dar. cdnsulibus lednibus virginibus patribus -ibus Acc. cdnsulés lednés virginés patrés -és Ast. cdnsulibus lednibus virginibus patribus -ibus
Nore 1.— Stems in I1-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far, farris; mel, mellis.
Notre 2.— A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as in -r: as, honds or honor, arbés or arbor.
Nore 3.— Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative.
1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.
2 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and vocative singular show thee. But cf. Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter), quoted by Priscian as old forms.
28 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$$ 68-65
63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nomina- tive is the same as the stem. Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in
nomen, stem nodmin-. 2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-.1
64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
nomen, N., name genus, N., race corpus, N., body aequor, N., sea
STEM nomin- STEM gener- STEM corpor- STEM aequor- SINGULAR Nom. nomen genus corpus aequor Gen. ndminis generis corporis aequoris Dat. nomini generi corpori aequori Acc. nomen genus corpus aequor Ast, nodmine genere corpore - aequore PLURAL
Nom. nodmina genera corpora aequora Gen. ndominum generum corporum aequorum Dat. ndminibus generibus corporibus aequoribus Acc. nodmina genera corpora aequora Apt. nominibus generibus . corporibus aequoribus
So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
Note. — The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, titer, venter; glis, mas, mis, [frén]; also virés (plural of vis: see §79).
1-STEMS
65. Nouns of this class include —
1. Pure i-Stems:
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic? nouns in -is and four in -er.
b. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems, in the plural like i-stems.
1 These were originally s-stems (cf. § 15. 4). 2 I.e. haying the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular.
§§ 66-68] THIRD DECLENSION: PURE [-STEMS 29
: Pure Stems
66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.
Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i and insert e before r. ‘These are imber, linter, iter, venter.
67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sitis, F., thirst _ turris, F., tower ignis, M., fire imber, m., rain
STEM siti- Stem turri- STEM igni- STEM imbri- SINGULAR
Nom. sitis turris ignis imber
Gen. sitis turris ignis imbris
Dart. siti turri igni imbri
Acc. sitim turrim (-em) ignem imbrem
Ast. siti turri (-e) igni (-e) imbri (-e)
PLURAL
Nom. turrés eignés imbrés
GEN. turrium ignium imbrium
Dart. turribus ignibus imbribus
Acc. turris (-és) ignis (-€s) imbris (-és)
ABL. turribus ignibus imbribus
«
68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with final i changed to e: as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns? in which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel and shorten the preceding a: as, animal, stem animili-.
a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal, animall, -ia, -ium.
1 Such are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minital, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribiinal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, laciinar, laquear, licar, liminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genudlia, spOnsdlia ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals, as, Saturnalia.
2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focdle, ndvale, penetrale, 14mAle, sciitale, tibiale; alveare, capillare, cochleare.
30 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 69-71
69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows: —
sedile, n., seat animal,Nn.,animal _ calcar,N., spur
STEM sedili- STEM animili- STEM calcari- SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS Nom. _ sedile animal calear -e or — GEN. sedilis animialis calcaris -is Dar. sedili animali caleari i Acc. _ sedile animal calear -e or — ABL. sedili animali calcari i
PLURAL
Nom. sedilia animalia calcaria -ia Gen. _ sedilium animalium calearium -ium Dart. _ sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus Acc. sedilia animalia calearia -ia Asi. _ sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus
Mixed 7-Stems
70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their i-forms in the singular, or censonant stems that have assumed i-
forms in the plural. Nore. —It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla- tive singular, -ium in the genitive! and -is or -és in the accusative plural. They include the following: —
1. Nouns in -és, gen. -is.?
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as, cliéns, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive -tatis (genitive plural usually -um)?: as, civitas.
5. Penatés, optimatés, and nouns denoting birth or abode ( patrials) in -As, -is, plural -atés, -ités: as, Arpinds, plural Arpinatés; Quiris, plural Quirités.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: dis, fraus, glis, lis, mas, miis, nix, nox, strix, vis.
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium, some -um, and some both.
2 These are acinacés, aedés, alc&és, caedés, cdutés, cladés, compagés, contagés, famés, félés, fidés (plural), indolés, labés, lués, mélés, mdlés, nibés, palumbés, prolés, propagés, pubés, sédés, saepés, sordés, stragés, strués, subolés, tabés, torqués, tudés, vatés, vehés, _ veprés, verrés, vulpés; aedés has also nominative aedis.
§§ 72-75] THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED I-STEMS 31
72. Nouns of this class are thus declined :—
nibés, F., cloud urbs, ¥F., city nox, F., night cliéns, m., client aetas, F., age
STEM nub(i)- STEM urb(i)- Sremnoct(i)- Srem client(i)- STEM aetat(i)- SINGULAR Nom. niubés urbs nox cliéns aetas Gen. niubis urbis noctis clientis aetatis Dar. nubi urbi nocti clienti aetati Acc. nubem urbem noctem clientem aetatem AsL. nube urbe nocte cliente aetate PLURAL
Nom. nwubés urbés noctés clientés aetatés Gen. nubium urbium noctium clientium ! aetatum 2 Dat. nubibus urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus Acc, nubis(-és) urbis(-és) noctis(-és) clientis(-és) aetitis(-és) Asi. nubibus urbibus noctibus clientibus aetatibus
Summary of +Stems
73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disap- peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. The nominative plural (-is) ? was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular (-im), next the ablative (-i); while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were retained in almost all.
74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms : —
a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.
b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
c. The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -is.
d. The accusative singular (m. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).
e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in -i (see § 76).
75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i- stems (M. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, -am ; servus, -um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the consonant declension).
1 Rarely clientum, 2 Also aetatium. Cf. § 71. 4. 8 An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2),
32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 75-78
a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In biris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim; and in amussim.
b. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, seciiris, sémentis, and rarely in many other words.
76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would be -i: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75) ; also seciiris.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequ4lis, annalis, aqudlis, cén- sularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribilis.
8. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar: except baccar, iubar, réte, and sometimes mare.
b. The ablative in -i is found sometimes —
1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis,! imber, lix, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sémentis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis, famili- aris, natalis, rivalis, sapiéns, tridéns, trirémis, vocalis.
Note 1.— The ablative of famés is always famé (§ 105. ec). The defective mane has sometimes mani (§ 103. b. N.) as ablative.
Nore 2.— Most names of towns in -€ (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a moun-
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caeréte. Note 3.— Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene.
77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -és,? but -is is occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -eis (diphthong).
78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural:
1. Always, — canis, iuvenis,® ambagés, mare (once only, otherwise want- ing), volucris; regularly, sédés, vatés.
2. Sometimes, — apis, caedés, cladés, ménsis, strués, subolés.
3. Very rarely,—patrials in -As, -atis; -is, -itis; as, Arpinads, Arpinatum ; Samnis, Samnitum.
1 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (§ 401).
2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -és (preserved in Greek in consonant stems, as éprvé, 8prvy-es), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -és in the Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural ges). This -6s was extended to consonant stems in Latin. 8 Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems.
--§ 79)
THIRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS
Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension
33
79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi-
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined:
Nom. GEN. Dar. Acc. ABL.
Nom. GEN. Dar. Acc. ABL.
Nom. GEN. Dart. Acc. ABL.
Nom. GEN. Dar. Acc, ABL.
bos, c. ox, cow
bis bdvis bovi bovem bove
cattle
bovés boum bébus (biibus) bovés bdbus (bibus)
sis, Cc. swine
sus suis sui suem
sue
sués suum
subus (suibus)
sués
subus (suibus)
vis, F. Force
vis
vis (rare) vi (rare) vim
vi
strength
virés Virium viribus viris (-és) viribus
senex, M. caro, F. OSs, N. old man Jlesh bone SINGULAR senex card os senis carnis ossis seni . carni ossi senem carnem os sene carne osse PLURAL senés carmmés ossa senum _ carnium ossium senibus carnibus ossibus senés carnés ossa senibus carnibus ossibus Iuppiter, m. nix, F. Jupiter snow SINGULAR Tuppiter ! nix Tovis nivis Tovi nivi Iovem nivem Tove nive PLURAL nivés nivium nivibus nivés nivibus
1 Also Iiipiter.
iter, N. march
iter itineris itineri iter itinere
itinera itinerum itineribus itinera itineribus
34 ' _ DECLENSION OF NOUNS [$§ 79-81
a. Two vowel-stems in i-, gri- and si-, which follow the third declension, add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems: gris has also a nominative gruis; siis has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural, griis has only gruibus.
b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative (bos, bovis).
In nay- (nau-) an i is added (nAvis, -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67).
In IWy- (= Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes i in Ii-piter (for -pater), genitive Idvis, etc.; but the form Iuppiter is preferred.
c. In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (N.), supelléx, supelléctilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis, from a longer; so that these words show a combination of forms from two distinct stems.
d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
e. Vas (N.), vasis, keeps s throughout; plural vasa, vasbrum. A dative plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum.
The Locative Case
80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends in the singular in -i or -e, in the plural in -ibus: as, riri, in the country ; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at T’ralles.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names — retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially — . Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos. . Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera. . Vocative singular like the stem, as, Periclé, Orpheu, Atla. . Nominative plural in -és, as, hérdés. . Accusative plural in -ds, as, hérdas.
orf Whe
1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -i, which became -€ in Latin. Thus the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in -1 (from -1d) was an analogical formation (cf. -4 from -ad, -d from -0d), properly belong- ing to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was ascribed to forms in -i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of o-stems (as, Corinthi, § 49. a); but forms in -€ also survived in this use. The plural -bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func- tion. Cf. Philippis (§ 49. a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, either locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athénis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed on the analogy of 0-stems.
§§ 82, 83] THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS 35
82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : —
hérés, M., hero lampas, F., torch basis, F., base tigris, c., tiger nais, ¥., naiad Stem héro- Sremilampad- Stem basi- StTEM { bi ra STEM naid-
tigri SINGULAR Nom. hérds ~ lampas basis tigris nais Gen. _ hérodis lampados baseds tigris(-idos) naidos Dat. _—hérdi lampadi basi tigri naidi Acc. hérda lampada basin tigrin(-ida) naida Ast. hérde lampade basi tigri(-ide) naide PLURAL Nom. hérdés lampadés basés tigrés naidés Gen. hérdum lampadum _basium(-e6n) tigrium naidum D.,A.1 hérdibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus
Acc, _hérdas lampadas basis(-€is) tigris(-idas) niaidas
Proper NAMES
Nom. Did6é Simois Capys Gen. Diddnis(Didis) Simoentis Capyos Dar. Diddni(Dido) Simoenti Capyi Acc. Didénem(-6) Simoenta Capyn Ast. Diddne(-d) Simoente Capyé Voc. Didd Simois Capy
Nom. Orpheus Periclés Paris
Gen. Orphei(-eds) Periclis(-) Paridis Dar. Orphei(-e6) Pericli(-i) Paridi Acc. Orphea(-um) Periclem (-ea, -én) Patads Ast. Orphed Pericle Paride, Pari Voc. Orpheu Periclés(-é) Pari
Notr.— The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.
83. Other peculiarities are the following : —
a. Delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -inis; Salamis, -is (F.), has ace. Salamina.
b. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as, tigris, gen. -idis (-idos) or -is; acc. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in); abl. -ide or -i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. -idem (-ida), abl. -ide, — not -im or -i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
1 Dative, hérdisin (once only).
86 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 83-86
ec. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamem- ndn (or Agamemnd), genitive -Snis, accusative -dna.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -6n: as, horizén, Xenophén; but a few are occasionally Latinized into 6n- (nom. -d): as, Dracd, -dnis ; Antiphé, -dnis.
e. Like Simois are declined stems in pant, ent-, and a few in int- (nomi- native in -As, -is, -iis): as, Atlas, -antis; Trapeziis, -intis.
f. Some words fluctuate between ditcsont declensions: as Orpheus be- tween the second and the third.
g- -6n is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books: as, Metamorphisedn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid’s well-known poem); Gedrgicon, of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi- nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen- der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following: —?
85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -és, -er, -%s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. -icis): as, color, flis, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis).
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Feminine are arbor; cés, dds; linter.
b. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor; 6s (Gris); also os (ossis) ;
cadaver, iter, tiiber, iber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, acer, papaver.
86. Feminine are nouns in-4, -ds, -és, -is, -fis, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant: as, legi6, civitds, niibés, avis, virtiis, arx, urbs. The nouns in -d are mostly those in -d6 and -gd, and abstract and collec- tive nouns in -i6.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are leG, lednis; ligd, Snis ; serm6, -dnis; also card6, harpags, marg6, ord6, turbd ; and concrete nouns in -id: as, pugid, inid, papilid ; ?
acinacés, ariés, celés, lebés, pariés, pés ;
1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.
2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -Gnis) are masculine by signification: as, gerd, carrier; restid, ropemaker; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicerd, Naso. See §§ 236. c, 255.
§§ 86-89] FOURTH DECLENSION 37
Nouns in -nis and -guis : as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis, énsis, fascis, follis, fistis, lapis, ménsis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis ;
mis ;
calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85);
déns, fons, mins, pons.
Nors.— Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. ménsis), M., April; oriéns (sc. s0l), M., the east; annalis (sc. liber), m., the year-book.
b. Neuter are vas (vasis); cris, itis, pis, ris, tis.
87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -l, -n, -ar, -ur, -tis: as, poéma, mare, animal, ndmen, calcar, rdbur, corpus; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are sal, sol, pecten, vultur, lepus. 6. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).
FOURTH DECLENSION
88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Femi- nine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with i (long). |
89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows:
manus, F., hand lacus, m., lake genii, n., knee STEM manu- STEM lacu- STEM genu- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS CASE-ENDINGS Nom. manus lacus ~—--us gent -a Gen. manis laciis -iis genis -iis Dar. manui(-i) lacui(-i) -ui(-i) gent -ti Acc. manum lacum -um gent i Ast. mani laeti -ii gent a PLURAL
Nom. manis lactis -iis | genua -ua Gen. manuum lacuum -uum genuum -uum Dar. manibus lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibus Acc, maniis lactis -iis genua ua
Ast. manibus lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibus
38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 90-93
Gender in the Fourth Declension 90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.
Exceptions: The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idis (plural), manus, nurus, porticus, quinquatris (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.
91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are corni, geni, pect (§ 105. f), veri.
Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension
92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth Declension require notice : —
a. A genitive singular in -i (as of the second declension) sometimes occurs in nouns in -tus: as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatis).
b. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one sylla- ble, and may then be written -um: as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum.
c. The dative and ablative plural in -iibus are retained in partus and tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words; portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension: as, ficus, fig, genitive ficitis or fici.
e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in -uom occur rarely: as, senatuis, senatuos; fluctuom.
f. The ablative singular ended anciently in -id (cf. § 48... 1): as, magistratid.
93. Domus (F.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions:
SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. domus domis Gen. domiis (domi, loc.) domuum (dom6rum) Dat. domui(domd) domibus Acc. domum domés (domiis) Ast. domé (domi) domibus
Nore 1.— The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home. Norte 2.— The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus; domdrum is late or poetic.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians as occurring in certain cases.
§§ 94-96] FIFTH DECLENSION (Z-STEMS) 39
94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (§$ 238. 6): cantus, song, CAN, cand, sing; casus (for fcad-tus), chance, cap, cad, fall ; exsulatus, exile, from exsuld, to be an exile (exsul). a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy: consulatus (as if from tcdnsuld, -dre), sendtus, incestus. b. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form the Supines of verbs (§ 159.5): as, spectatum, petitum; dictii, visi. ec. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: as, iussii (med), by (my) command ; so iniussii (populi), without (the people’s) order. Of some only the dative is used: as, divisui.
FIFTH DECLENSION (é-STEMS)
95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in é-, which appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.
96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : —
rés, F., thing diés, m., day fidés, r., faith STEM ré- Stem dié- Srem fidé- SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS Nom. rés diés fidés -és Grex. rei diéi (dié) fid&i -8i (8) Dar. réi diéi (dié) fidéi -€i (-€) Acc. rem diem fidem -em ABL. ré dié fidé -é PLURAL Nom. rés diés -és Gen. rérum diérum -6rum Dar. rébus diébus . -6bus Acc. rés diés -6s Apt. rébus diébus -6bus
Notre. — The é of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fidés, spés, rés, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e is always short.
40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 97-99
Gender in the Fifth Declension
97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except diés (usually M.), day, and meridiés (M.), noon.
a. Diés is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi- cating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general: as, cOnstitiita dié, on a set day; longa diés, a long time.
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
98. The following peculiarities require notice : —
a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only diés and rés are declined through- out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or accusative in aciés, effigiés, Gluviés, faciés, glaciés, seriés, speciés, spés.!
b. The Locative form of this declension ends in -é. It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time: —
hodié, to-day ; dié quarté (old, quarti), the fourth day ; perendié, day after to-morrow ; pridié, the day before.
ce. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns have forms of both: as, materia, -iés; saevitia,-iés. The genitive and dative in -€i are rarely found in these words.
d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension: as, requiés, satiés (also satias, genitive -atis), plébés (also plébs, genitive plébis), — famés, genitive famis, ablative famé.
Norr.—In the genitive and dative -€i (-€i) was sometimes contracted into -€: as, tribiinus plébéi, tribune of the people (plébés). Genitives in -i and -€ also occur: as, dii (Aen. i. 636), plébi-scitum, acié (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni-
tive in -€s are found (cf. -ds in the first declension, § 43. b). The dative has rarely -é, and a form in -i is cited.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS Nouns wanting in the Plural
99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only (singuldria tantum). ‘These are —
1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Cesar; Gallia, Gaul.
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, gold ; aér, air; triticum, wheat.
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitid, ambition; fortitidd, courage; calor, heat.
1 The forms faciérum, speciérum, speciébus, spérum, spébus, are cited by grammarians, also spérés, spéribus, and some of these occur in late authors. -
§§ 100-102] DEFECTIVE NOUNS 41
100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in some other sense.
a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to twe or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : —
_ duodecim Caesarés, the twelve Cesars.
Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine). Castores, Castor and Pollux; lovés, images of Jupiter.
b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nivés, snowflakes ; or different kinds of a thing : as, derés, airs (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like: —
quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; tia, periods of rest ; caldrés, frigora, times of heat and cold.
Nouns wanting in the Singular
101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the Plural (plirdlia tantum). Such are —
1. Many names of towns: as, Athénae (Athens), Thirii, Philippi, Véii.
2. Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games ; Baccha- nalia, feast of Bacchus; Quinquatris, festival of Minerva; lidi Romani, the Roman Games.
3. Names of classes: as, optimatés, the upper classes; maidrés, ancestors ; liberi, children; penatés, household gods; Quirités, citizens (of Rome).
4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artiis, joints; divi- tiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors ; forés, double-doors ; angustiae, a narrow pass (narrows); moenia, city walls.
Nore 1.— Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English nouns in the singular number: as, déliciae, delight, darling; faucés, throat; fidés, lyre (also singular in poetry) ; insidiae, ambush ; cervicés, neck ; viscera, flesh.
Note 2.— The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, ora (for 6s), the face ; scéptra (for scéptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.
102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corre- sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense:
1. As noun, to denote a single object: pict Bacchanal, a spot ‘sacred to Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat.
2. As adjective: as, Caté Maior, Cato the Elder.
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder; valya, a door; artus, a joint.
42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§ 103
Nouns Defective in Certain Cases 103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : ! —
a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular: fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus.
Norte 1.— The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative. Nore 2.— The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur.
b. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : —
1. In the nominative singular: glis (r.).
2. In the genitive singular: dicis, nauci (N.).
8. In the dative singular: divisui (m.) (cf. § 94. ¢).
4. In the accusative singular: amussim (M.); vénum (dative vénd in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular: pond6 (N.); mane (N.); asti (m.), by craft; iussi, iniussi, nati, and many other verbal nouns in -us (m.) (§ 94. ¢).
Nore. — Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mani is used as ablative. Pondd with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A nominative singular astus and a plural astiis occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural: infitias.
c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): —
1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (F.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular: spontis (rare), sponte (F.).
8. In the accusative singular and plural: dicam, dicas (Fr.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural: fords, foris (F.) (cf. forés), used as adverbs.
d. Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : —
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular : impetus, -um, -ii (M.)?; lués, -em, -é (F.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : gratés, -ibus (Fr).
8. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : iigera, -um, -ibus (x.); but iigerum, etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. 0).
e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : —
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicidnis, -i, -em, -e (F.).
f. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular : —
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frigis, -i, -em, -e (F.) ; opis, -1 (once only), -em, -e (r. ; nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, -em, -e (F.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative: cassem, -e (F.) ; sordem, -e (F.).
4, Nouns found in the ablative only: ambage (r.); fauce (r.); obice (c.).
g- Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural : —
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted. 2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.
§§ 103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative only : fel (fella), far (farra), hordeum (hordea), iis, broth (iiira), mel (mella), murmur (murmura), pis (pira), ris (rira), tis or this (tira).
Notr.— The neuter iis, right, has only itira in classical writers, but a very rare geni- tive plural itirum occurs in old Latin.
2. calx, cor, cds, crux, fax, faex, lanx, liix, nex, ds (dris),1 os (ossis),? pax, pix, rds, sal, sdl, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
8. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see § 98. a).
h. Nouns defective in both singular and plural : — 1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis, -em, -e; -és, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -és, -ibus.?
VARIABLE NOUNS
104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender. 105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called heteroclites.4
a. Colus (F.), distaff; domus (F.), house (see § 93), and many names of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
6. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third: as, itigerum, -i, +, ablative + or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris; sequester, genitive -tri and -tris; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, -i (§ 79. e).
c. Some vary between the Béeond: Third, and Fourth: as, penus, penum, genitive peni and penoris, ablative peni.
d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, —requiés has geni- tive -€tis, dative wanting, accusative -étem or -em, ablative -~€ (once -€te) ; famés, regularly of the third declension, has ablative famé (§ 76. n. 1), and piibés (m.) has once dative pubé (in Plautus).
f. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, ete., but also nominative peci, ablative pecii; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
g- Many vary between different stems of the same declension: as, femur (N.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from tfemen); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris; minus (N.), plural miinera and minia.
1 The ablative plural Oribus is rare, the classical idiom being in dre omnium, in every- body’s mouth, etc., not in Gribus omnium.
2 The genitive plural ossium is late; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem) is early and late.
3 An old nominative daps is cited. _
4 That is, ‘‘nouns of different inflections’’ (€repos, another, and kXlvw, to inflect).
44
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[$§ 106, 107
106, Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.!
a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um: balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many
others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the
Singular : — balneum (n.), bath ; caelum (N.), heaven ; carbasus (F.), a sail ; délicium (N.), pleasure ; epulum (n.), feast ; frénum (N.), @ bit; iocus (M.), @ jest ; locus (M.), place ; rastrum (N.), a rake ;
balneae (F.), baths (an establishment),
caeloés (mM. acc., Lucr.).
carbasa (N.) (-drum), sails,
déliciae (F.), pet.
epulae (F.), feast.
fréni (m.) or fréna (Nn.), a bridle.
ioca (N.), ioci (m.), jests.
loca (N.), loci (m., usually topics, passages in books). rastri (M.), rastra (N.), rakes.
Norx.— Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.
107. Many nouns are found in the Plural in a peculiar sense: —
aedés, -is (F.), temple ;
aqua (r.), water ;
auxilium (N.), help ;
bonum (N.), a good ;
carcer (M.), dungeon ;
castrum (n.), fort;
comitium (N.), place of assembly ; copia (r.), plenty ;
fidés (F.), harp-string ;
finis (m.), end;
fortiina (F.), fortune ;
gratia (r.), favor (rarely, thanks) ; hortus (m.), @ garden; impedimentum (N.) hindrance ; littera (F.), letter (of alphabet) ; locus (m.), place [plural loca (N.)]; lidus (M.), sport;
mos (M.), habit, custom ;
natalis (m.), birthday ;
opera (F.), work ;
[ops,] opis (r.), help (§ 103. f. 1); pars (F.), part;
rostrum (N.), beak of a ship ;
sal (mM. or N.), salt;
tabella (r.), tablet ;
aedés, -ium, house.
aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place. auxilia, auxiliaries.
bona, goods, property.
carcerés, barriers (of race-course). castra, camp.
comitia, an election (town-meeting). copiae, stores, troops.
fidés, lyre.
finés, bounds, territories. fortiinae, possessions.
gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces). horti, pleasure-grounds. impedimenta, baggage.
litterae, epistle, literature.
loci,? topics, places in books.
lidi, public games.
morés, character.
natalés, descent, origin.
operae, day-laborers (‘‘ hands’’). opés, resources, wealth.
partés, part (on the stage), party. rostra, speaker’s platform.
salés, witticisms.
tabellae, documents, records.
1 That is, “‘ of different genders” (érepos, another, and yévos, gender). 2 In early writers the regular plural.
§ 108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45
NAMES OF PERSONS
108. A Roman had regularly three names:— (1) the praendmen, or personal name; (2) the ndmen, or name of the géns or house ; (8) the cdgndmen, or family name :.—
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicer6 we have — Marcus, the praendmen, like our Christian or given name; Tullius, the ndmen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian géns (or house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus ; Ciceré, the cdgndmen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. Norr.— When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cégnd- men is usually put in the plural: as, Piblius et Servius Sullae. a.. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or distinction, or to show adoption from another géns. _ Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Piblius Cornélius Scipid Africanus Aemilianus: Africanus, from his exploits in Africa; Aemilianus, as adopted from the Amilian géns.1 Note.— The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi- tions, but later grammarians invented the word dgnoémen to express them. 6. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the ndmen of their géns. . Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia tertia, and so on.
ec. The commonest prenomens are thus abbreviated : —
A. Aulus. L. Licius. Q. Quintus.
App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius) (cf. § 1. a). M’. Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus. Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
D. Decimus. N. (Num.) Numerius’ T. Titus.
K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
Note 1.— In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G
(§ 1. a).
1In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the praenémina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL- LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepds Marci pro- nepds Cornélia tribii Cicerd. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia Servi Sulpicii (Suet. Iul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli (Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
46 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [$§ 109, 110
ADJECTIVES
109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de- clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Thus,—
bonus puer, the good boy. bona puella, the good girl. bonum dénum, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen- sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (@- AND 0-STEMS)
110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager; in the Feminine like stella; and in the Neuter like bellum.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen-
sions is bonus, -a, -um, which.is thus declined : —
bonus, bona, bonum, good
MASCULINE
FEMININE NEUTER Stem bono- STEM bona- StrEM bono- SINGULAR Nom. bonus bona bonum GEN. boni bonae boni Dar. bons bonae bond Acc. bonum bonam bonum ABL. bond bona bond Voc. bone bona bonum PLURAL
Nom. boni bonae bona GEN. bonérum bondrum boné6rum Dar. bonis bonis bonis Acc. bonés bonas bona ABL. bonis ~ bonis bonis
§§ 110, 111] FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 47
Nore. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (-quos), -qua, -cum (-quom), accusative
-cum (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. b and 46. n.2). Thus, — Nom. propincus (-quos) propinqua propincum (-quom) GEN. propinqui propinquae propingui, etc.
But most modern editions disregard this principle.
a. The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and the Vocative in -ie; not in -i, as in nouns (cf. § 49. b, c); as, Lacedaemonius, -il, -ie.
Nors.— The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. § 145).
111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows: —
miser, misera, miserum, wretched
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SrEmM misero- STEM misera- STEM misero- SINGULAR Nom. miser misera miserum GEN. miseri miserae miseri Dat. miser6 miserae miser6 Acc. miserum miseram miserum ABL. miser6 misera miser6 PLURAL Nom. miseri miserae misera GEN. miser6rum miserarum miser6rum Dat. miseris miseris miseris Acc. miser6s miseras misera ABL. miseris miseris miseris
a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros- perus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger: as, saeti- ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing ; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dextra it is often omitted: as, dextra manus, the right hand.
Nore. — Stems in éro- (as précérus), with morigérus, propérus, have the regular nomi- native masculine in -us.
6. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use: cétera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases: as, poster6 dié, the next day.
Nors.— An ablative feminine in -6 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica octophoré (Verr. y. 27).
48 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [$§ 112, 118
112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows : —
niger, nigra, nigrum, black
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER STEM nigro- STEM nigra- STEM nigro- SINGULAR Nom. niger nigra nigrum Gen. nigri nigrae nigri Dart. nigr6 nigrae nigr6 Acc. nigrum nigram nigrum ABL. nigr6 nigra nigrd PLURAL Nom. nigri nigrae nigra GEN. nigr6rum nigrarum nigr6rum Dart. nigris nigris nigris Acc. nigr6s nigras nigra ABL. nigris nigris nigris
a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, créber, faber, glaber, integer, lidicer, macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer ; also the pos- sessives noster, vester (§ 145).
113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have the Genitive Singular in -ius and the Dative in -i in all genders:
alius (N. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terius, the other. nillus, no, none. illus, any. neuter, -trius, neither. solus, alone. iinus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined : —
M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. tnus una unum uter utra utrum GEN. tnius unius unius utrius utrius utrius Dar. uni uni uni utri utri utzi Acc. tnum unam tinum utrum utram utrum ABL. und una und utr6 utra utré Nom. alius alia aliud alter altera alterum Gen. _ alius alius alius alterius alterius alterius Dar. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri Acc. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum
Api. alid alia ali6d alterd altera alterd
7
§§ 113-115] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 49
a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).
b. The genitive in -ius, dative in -i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and § 146).
c. Thei of the genitive ending -ius, though originally long, may be made short in verse; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
d. Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense the adjective aliénus, belonging to another, another's.
e. In compounds —as alteruter——sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
Nore. — The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine, alio. Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius, aliud).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND z-STEMS) 114, Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified : —
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, — one for each gender: as, acer, Acris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, — masculine and feminine the same: as, levis (M., F.), leve (N.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination, — the same for all three genders: as, atrox.
a. Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -is (see §§ 73 and 74).}
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined : —
acer, Acris, acre, keen, Stem Acri-
SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. Acer acris acre acrés acrés acria GEN. acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium Dart. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus Acc. acrem acrem acre acris (-6s) Acris (-6s) 4Acria ABL. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus
1 But the forms of some are doubtful.
50 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 115-117
a, Like acer are declined the following stems in ri-: —
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paliister, pedester, puter, saliiber, silvester, terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, October (cf. § 66).
Nore 1.—This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes used for both genders: as, coetus alacris(Enn.). In others, as faenebris, finebris, illis- tris, ligubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (§ 116).
NotE 2.— Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.
116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined : —
levis, leve, light, Stem levi-
SINGULAR PLURAL M., F. N. M., F. N. Nom. levis leve levés levia Gen. levis levis levium levium Dar. levi levi levibus levibus Acc. levem leve levis (-és) levia Ast. levi levi levibus levibus
Notr.— Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -e in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One Termination
_ 117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con- sonant stems; but most of them, except ic as nba have the
following forms of i-stems:—1
-i in the ablative singular (but often -e);
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ;
-ium in the genitive plural;
-is (as well as -és) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or r-, form the nominative singu- lar from the stem by adding s: as, atréx (stem atréc-+s), egéns (stem egent- + s).?
b. Here belong the present participles in -ns(stem nt-)?: as, am&ns, monéns. They are declined like egéns (but cf. § 121).
1 For details see § 121. 2 Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s.
§§ 118, 119] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 51 118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : —
atrox, fierce, Stem atroc- egéns, needy, Stem egent-
SINGULAR M., F. N. M., F. N. Nom. atrox atrox egéns egéns Gen. atrdcis atrocis egentis egentis Dat. = atroci atroci egenti egenti Acc. atrocem atrox egentem egéns
Ast. atrodci (-e) atrOci (-e) egenti (-e) egenti (-e)
PLURAL Nom. atrdcés atrocia egentés egentia Gey. atrodcium atrocium egentium egentium Dar. atrdcibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus Acc. _atrocis (-és) atrocia egentis (-€s) egentia AsL. atrocibus atrocibus egentibus egentibus
119. Other examples are the following : —
concors, harmonious STEM concord-
praeceps, headlong STEM praecipit-
SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N. Nom. concors concors praeceps praeceps Gen. concordis concordis praecipitis praecipitis Dar. concordi concordi praecipiti praecipiti Acc. concordem concors praecipitem praeceps AsL. concordi concordi © praecipiti praecipiti
PLURAL
Nom. concordés concordia praecipités praecipitia Gen. concordium concordium [praecipitium ]? Dar. concordibus concordibus praecipitibus praecipitibus Acc. concordis (-6s) concordia praecipitis (-6s) praecipitia Ast. concordibus concordibus praecipitibus praecipitibus
1 Given by grammarians, but not found.
52
Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. ABL.
Nom. GEN. Dart. Acc. ABL.
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§ 119 iéns, going par, equal dives, rich STEM eunt- STEM par- Stem divit- SINGULAR M., F. N. M., F. N. M., F. N. iéns iéns par par dives dives euntis euntis paris” paris divitis divitis eunti eunti pari pari diviti diviti euntem iéns parem par divitem dives eunte (i) eunte(-I) pari pari divite divite PLURAL euntés euntia parés paria divités [ditia] euntium euntium parium parium divitum divitum euntibus euntibus paribus paribus divitibus divitibus euntis (-€s) euntia paris (-6s) paria divitis (-és) [ditia] euntibus euntibus paribus paribus divitibus divitibus . iiber, fertile vetus, old StTEm iber- STEM veter- SINGULAR M., F. N. M., F. N. Nom. uber tiber vetus vetus Gen. uberis uberis veteris veteris Dar. uberi tiberi veteri veteri Acc. tberem aber veterem vetus Asi. uberi! uberi* vetere (-I) _ vetere (-i) PLURAL Nom. uberés tibera veterés vetera Gen. wtberum tiberum veterum veterum Dat. itberibus uberibus veteribus veteribus Acc. tberés tibera veterés vetera tiberibus uberibus veteribus veteribus
ABL.
Nore. — Of these vetus is originally ans-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for {bi-corpos), dégener (for +dé-genes).
1 An ablative in -e is very rare.
§§ 120, 121] DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES 58
Declension of Comparatives
120. Comparatives. are declined as follows : —
melior, better plis, more SrEem melior- for melios- Stem plur- for plis- SINGULAR
M., F. N. M., F. N. Nom. melior melius ao pliis Gey. melidris melidris aa pluiris Dar. melidri meliori — — Acc. melidrem melius —— plis Asi, moeliore (-i) melidre (-1) a plure
PLURAL
Nom. melidrés meliora plurés plira Gen. melidrum melidrum plirium plirium Dat. melidribus melidribus pluribus pluribus Acc. melidrés (-is) meliora plurés (-is) plira Asi. melidribus melidribus pluribus pliribus
a. All comparatives except pliis are declined like melior.
b. The stem of comparatives properly ended in 6s-; but this became or in the nominative masculine and feminine, and 6r- in all other cases except the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and 8 is changed to i (cf. honér, ris; corpus, -Sris). Thus comparatives appear to have two terminations.
c. The neuter singular pliis is used only asanoun. The genitive (rarely the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative is not found in classic use. The compound compliirés, several, has sometimes neuter plural compliria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
121. In adjectives of Consonant stems —
a. The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -i, but sometimes -e. 1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e. 2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, § 419), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -1: — domin6 imperante, at the master’s command ; ab arse by a lover ; ab amanti muliere, by a loving woman.
54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 121, 122
3. The following have regularly -i: —4méns, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), cénsors (but as a substantive, -e), dégener, hebes, ingéns, inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4, The following have regularly -e : —caeles, compos, [ {déses], dives, hospes, particeps, pauper, princeps, sdspes, superstes. So also patrials (see § 71. 5) and stems in 4t-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.
6. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in the following : 1 —
1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, princeps, supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pés, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns: as, silentum concilium, a coun- cil of the silent shades (Aen. vi. 482).
ce. The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -is, but comparatives com- monly have -és.
d. Vetus (gen. -éris) and piibes (gen. -éris) regularly have -e in the abla- tive singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the genitive plural. For iber, see § 119.
e. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine form in -a: as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iind Séspita.
Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives
122. The following special points require notice : —
a. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-drus).
b. A few adjectives are indeclinable: as, damnas, frigi (really a dative of service, see § 382. 1. n.?), néquam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an inde- clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c. Several adjectives are defective : as, exspés (only nom.), exléx (exlégem) (only nom. and ace. sing.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.); and prim6ris, sémineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in thé masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.
Such are aduléscéns, youthful; [tdéses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor ; sdspes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are some- times called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see
§ 321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see § 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives, see § 321. d.
1 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.
§§ 123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com- parison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu- ter -ius),! the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a,-um), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel : —
carus, dear (stem caro-) ; carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest. levis, light (stem levi-) ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest. félix, happy (stem félic-); félicior, happier; félicissimus, happiest. hebes, dull (stem hebet-); hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.
Notr.— A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as, grandius-culus, a little larger (see § 243).
a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : — patiéns, patient; patientior, patientissimus. ; apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.
125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative. The comparative is regular :— acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus. miser, wretched ; miserior, miserrimus.
a. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form veter ; and matirus, besides its regular superlative (matirissimus), has a rare form matirrimus.
For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used.
126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi- lis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facillimus.
127. Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicéns and voléns, which were anciently used as adjectives : —
maledicus, slanderous ; maledicentior, maledicentissimus. malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
1The comparative suffix (earlier -ids) is akin to the Greek -(wy, or the Sanskrit ~iyans. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in 5-10 T0-s and English sweetest) and also the old -mo-s (seen in pri-mus, mini-mus, etc.). The endings -limus and -rimus are formed by assimilation (§ 15.6) from-simus, The comparative and superlative are really new stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection.
56 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 127-130
a. So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus : — magnificus, grand; magnificentior, magnificentissimus. ~ 128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maximé, most. So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i: — iddneus, jit; magis idjneus, maximé iddneus.
Norr.— But pius has piissimus in the superlative, — a form condemned by Cicero, but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.
Irregular Comparison
129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular forms : —
bonus, good ; melior, better ; optimus, best.
malus, bad ; péior, worse ; pessimus, worst.
magnus, great; maior, greater ; maximus, greatest.
parvus, small ; minor, Jess ; minimus, least.
multus, much ; plis (N.) (§ 120), more; plirimus, most.
multi, many ; plirés, more ; plirimi, most.
néquam (indecl., § 122.6), néquior; néquissimus. worthless ;
friigi (indecl., § 122. b), use- friigalior ; frigalissimus. ful, worthy ;
dexter, on the right, handy; dexterior; dextimus.
Nore. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. § 127). Thus friigalior and friigdlissimus are formed from the stem frigali-, but are used as the com- parative and superlative of the indeclinable frigi.
Defective Comparison
130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a Positive : —
dcior, swifter ; dcissimus, swiftest. -potior, preferable ; } potissimus, most important.
a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : ?—_
1 The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.
2'The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -e7).
The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison; those in -mus Jjike imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like extrémus are superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and furtherest.
§§ 130, 131] DEFECTIVE COMPARISON 57
cis, citra (adv., on this side): citerior, hither ; citimus, hithermost.
dé (prep., down): déterior, worse; déterrimus, worst. in, intra (prep., in, within): interior, inner; . intimus, inmost. prae, pro (prep., before): prior, former ; primus, first. prope (adv., near): propior, nearer; proximus, nezt. ultra (adv., beyond): ulterior, farther; ultimus, farthest.
b. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in the plural) :—
exterus, outward ; exterior, outer; extrémus (extimus), outmost. inferus, below (see § 111.6); inferior, lower; infimus (imus), lowest. posterus, following ; posterior, latter; postrémus (postumus), last. superus, above; superior, higher ; suprémus or summus, highest.
But the plurals, exteri, foreigners ; inferi, the gods below ; posteri, posterity ; superi, the heavenly gods, are common.
Nortr.— The superlative postumus has the special sense of Jast-born, and was a well- known surname.
131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superla- tive: —
a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following : —
bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus, caesius, invictus, pius,
falsus, invitus, sacer, fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer.
b. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as, agilis, probabilis), and in the following : —
actudsus exilis proclivis surdus agrestis ingéns propinquus taciturnus alacer iéitinus satur tempestivus arcanus longinquus ségnis teres
caecus obliquus sérus vicinus diiturnus opimus supinus
c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the com- paratives itinior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor nati and maior nati are sometimes used (nati being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, wit or without nati.
Norr.— In these phrases nati is ablative of specification (see § 418).
d. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable of comparison.
Norr.— But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning abso- lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has 4trior),
58 NUMERALS [§§ 132, 133
NUMERALS 132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : —
I. NuMERAL ADJECTIVES:
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, iinus, one ; duo, two, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers,' adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi- nals, and answering the question which in order? as, primus, first; secun- dus, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singuli, one at a lime ; bini, two by two, etc.
Il. Numerat ADVERBS, answering the question how often? as, semel, once ; bis, twice, etc. .
Cardinals. and Ordinals
133. These two series are as follows: —
CARDINAL ORDINAL ROMAN NUMERALS 1. anus, tina, tinum, one primus, -a, -um, first I 2. duo, duae, duo, two secundus (alter), second It 3. trés, tria, three tertius, third III 4. quattuor quartus IlII or Iv 5. quinque quintus Vv 6. sex sextus VI 7. septem septimus VII 8. octd octavus VII 9. novem nonus VIII Or Ix 10. decem decimus x 11. indecim indecimus xI 12. duodecim duodecimus xu 13. tredecim (decem (et) trés) _ tertius decimus (decimus (et) tertius) XIII 14, quattuordecim quartus decimus XIII Or XIV 15. quindecim quintus decimus XV 16. sédecim sextus decimus XVI 17. septendecim _ septimus decimus XVII 18. duodéviginti (octédecim) duodévicénsimus (octavus decimus) XVIII
-1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, ndnus) are formed by means of suf- fixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus, decimus (compare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; pri- mus is a superlative ofa stem akin to pro; the forms in-tus (quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -ros, and with superlatives in ~to-T0-s, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to-simus). Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; alter is a comparative form (compare -Tepos in Greek), and ndnus is contracted from jnovenos. The cardinal multiples of ten are compounds of -gint- ‘ten’ (a fragment of a derivative from decem),
wer
elon we
§§ 133, 134] CARDINALS AND ORDINALS 59
CARDINAL ORDINAL ROMAN NUMERALS 19. indéviginti (novendecim) tindévicénsimus{nonus decimus) xvi1ti or x1x 20. viginti vicénsimus (vigénsimus) xx 21. viginti inus vicénsimus primus XXI (or inus et viginti, etc.) (tinus et vicénsimus, etc.) - 30. triginta tricénsimus i Xxx 40. quadraginta quadragénsimus XXXX OF XL 50. quinquaginta quinquagénsimus J or. 60. sexaginta sexagénsimus LX 70. septuaginta septuagénsimus LXX 80. octdginta octégénsimus LXXx 90. ndnaginta nonagénsimus LXXXX Or XC 100. centum centénsimus C 101. centum (et) tinus, etc. centénsimus primus, etc. sy OL 200. ducenti, -ae, -a ducenténsimus cc 800. trecenti trecenténsimus cco 400. quadringenti quadringenténsimus ccce- 500. quingenti quingenténsimus D 600. sescenti sescenténsimus DC 700. septingenti septingenténsimus pec 800. octingenti octingenténsimus pcce 900. ndngenti nongenténsimus pecce 1000. mille millénsimus _ 00 (CID) or M 5000. quinque milia (millia) quinquiéns millénsimus 190 10,000. decem milia (millia) deciéns millénsimus cc199 100,000. centum milia (millia) centiéns millénsimus ccclo90
Norte 1.—- The forms in -€nsimus are often written without the n: as, vicésimus, etc.
Nore 2.— The forms octédecim, novendecim are rare, duodéviginti (two from twenty), indéviginti (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and nine respectively.
Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
134. Of the Cardinals only iinus, duo, trés, the hundreds above one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
a. For the declension of inus, see $113. It often has the meaning of same or only. The plural is used in this sense; but also, as a simple nu- meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, tina castra, one camp (cf. § 137.6). The plural occurs also in the phrase ini et alteri, one party and the other (the ones and the others).
b. Duo,! two, and trés, three, are thus declined : —
1 The form in -0 is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. Soinambd, both, which preserves -6 (cf. da and § 629. b).
60 NUMERALS [§§ 184, 135 M. F. N. M.,F. N. Nom. duo duae duo trés tria Gen. dud6rum duarum du6rum trium trium Dat. dudbus duabus du6bus tribus tribus Acc. du6s (duo) duas duo trés (tris) tria Asi. dudbus -duabus dudbus tribus tribus
Norr. — Ambo, both, is declined like duo.
c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
d. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective : —
mille modis, in a thousand ways.
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men.
mille trahéns varids colérés (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thousand various colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural of sedile (§ 69): milia, milium, milibus, etc.
Norr.— The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative: as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men; in the other casés rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia: as, cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
e. The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like bonus.
135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses : —
a. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted : duo et viginti; otherwise et is omitted: viginti duo.
b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or stands between the two highest denominations : — mille (et) septingenti sexaginta quattuor, 1764.
Nors.— Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives : —
Unus et viginti milités, or viginti milités (et) inus, 27 soldiers. duo milia quingenti milités, or duo milia militum et quingenti, 2500 soldiers. milités mille ducenti triginta tinus, 1231 soldiers.
c. After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive :
duo milia hominum, two thousand men.} cum tribus milibus militum, with three thousand soldiers. milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
d. For million, billion, trillion, etc., the Romans had no special words, but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 188. a).
1 Or, in poetry, bis mille hominés, twice a thousand men.
Oy ee ee Ge A EE
§§ 135-137] DISTRIBUTIVES 61
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood : —two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partés) ; three-eighths, trés octavae (sc. partés).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
Note 1.— When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-« third, tertia pars; one-fourth, quarta pars.
Note 2.— When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numer- ator only is given: two-thirds, duae partés; three-fourths, trés partés, etc.
Note 3.— Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound : as, triéns, a third; bés, two-thirds. See § 637.
Distributives 136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus.
Norr.— These answer to the interrogative quoténi, how many of each? or how many at a time?
1. singuli, one by one 18. octdni déni or duo- 100. centéni
2. bini, two by two dévicéni 200. ducéni
3. terni, trini 19. novéni déni or iin- 300. trecéni
4. quaterni dévicéni 400. quadringéni 5. quini 20. vicéni 500. quingéni
6. séni 21. vicéni singuli, etc. 600. sescéni
7. septeni 30. tricéni 700. septingéni 8. octoni 40. quadragéni 800. octingéni
9. noveéni 50. quinquagéni 900. ndngéni
10. déni 60. sexagéni 1000. milléni
11. indéni 70. septuagéni 2000. bina milia 12. duodéni 80. octogéni 10,000. déna milia 13. terni déni, ete. 90. nonagéni 100,000, centéna milia
137. Distributives are used as follows : —
a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula singulis, one apiece (one each to each one); agri septéna itigera plébi divisa sunt, i.e. seven jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), ete.
b. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trini, not terni, is used for three: as, trina (not terna) castra, three camps; terna castra means camps in threes.
c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; ter septénis diébus, in thrice seven days.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set).
62 NUMERALS [$§ 188, 139
Numeral Adverbs
138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiéns (quotiés), how many times? how often?
1. semel, once 12. duodeciéns 40. quadragiéns 2. bis, twice 13. terdeciéns 50. quinquagiéns 8. ter, thrice 14, quaterdeciéns 60. sexagiéns
4. quater 15. quindeciéns 70. septuagiéns 5. quinquiéns (-és)! 16. sédeciéns 80. octdgiéns
6. sexiéns 17. septiésdeciéns 90. ndnagiéns
7. septiéns 18. duodéviciéns 100. centiéns
8. octiéns 19. indéviciéns 200. ducentiéns 9. noviéns 20. viciéns 300. trecentiéns 10. deciéns 21. semel viciéns,? ete. 1000. miliéns
11. indeciéns 80. triciéns 10,000. deciéns miliéns
a. Numeral Adverbs are used with mille to express the higher numbers:
ter et triciéns (centéna milia) séstertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty times a hundred thousand sesterces).
viciés ac septiés miliés (centéna milia) séstertium, 7,700,000,000 sesterces (twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
Notrr. — These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money, and centéna milia is regularly omitted (see § 634).
Other Numerals
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives: — simplex, single ; duplex, double, twofold ; triplex, triple, threefold ; quadruplex, quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sésquiplex (14), multiplex (manifold).
a. Proportionals are: duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., twice as great, thrice as great, etc.
6. Temporals: bimus, trimus, of two or three years’ age ; biennis, triennis, lasting two or three years ; biméstris, triméstris, of two or three months ; biduum, a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.
ce. Partitives: binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: ini, unity; binid, the two (of dice); primanus, of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; dénarius, a sum of 10 asses; binus (distributive), double, etc.
1 Forms in -ns are often written without the n, 2 Also written viciéns et semel or viciéns semel, etc.
§§ 140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63
PRONOUNS
140. Pronouns are used as Nouns oras Adjectives. They are divided into the following seven classes : —
. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, J.
- Reflexive Pronouns: as, sé, himself.
. Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.
. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hic, this; ille, that. . Relative Pronouns: as, qui, who.
. Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who?
. Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.
“IQ Ore CO DD
141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
Norr.— These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of declension differing from that of nouns.
Personal Pronouns
142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, J, nds, we; of the second person, ti, thou or you, vis, ye or you. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they—are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
143. Ego and ti are declined as follows: — :
First PERSON
Singular Plural Nom. ego, I nos, we GEN. mei, of me nostrum, nostri, of us Dat. mihi (mi), to me nobis, to us Acc. mé, me nods, us ABL. mé, by me nobis, by us
SEconD PERSON
Nom. tii, thou or you vos, ye or you ’ GEN. tui, of thee or you vestrum, vestri; vostrum (-tri) Dat. tibi vobis
Acc. té vos
ABL. té vobis
a. The plural nos is often used for the singular ego; the plural vis is never so used for the singular ti.
64 PRONOUNS [S§ 148, 144
Norr.—Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative méd, téd (cf. § 43. n. 1).
b. The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively : —
finusquisque nostrum, each one of us. vestrum omnium, of all of you.
Nore.— The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives of the possessives: mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, ves- trum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find tina vestrarum, one of you (women).
c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively (§ 347): — memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me). mé tui pudet, J am ashamed of you. ~
d. Emphatic forms of ti are tite and titemet (titimet). The other cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made emphatic by adding -met: as, egomet, vosmet.
Notrs. — Early emphatic forms are mépte and tépte.
e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu- lar; as, mémé, teté.
f. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative: as, técum loquitur, he talks with you.
Reflexive Pronouns
144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see § 299): as, sé amat, he loves himself.
a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro- nouns are used as Reflexives: as, mé vided, J see myself; té laudas, you praise yourself; nobis persuadémus, we persuade ourselves.
b. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined : —
Gen. sul, of himself, herself, itself, themselves
Dar. sibi, to himself, herself, itself, themselves
Acc. sé (sésé), himself, herself, itself, themselves
Asi. sé (sésé), [by] himself, herself, itself, themselves Nore 1.— Emphatic and reduplicated forms of sé are made as in the personals (see
$143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, sécum, with himself, etc. Nore 2.— An old form séd occurs in the accusative and ablative.
*
ee
§§ 145, 146] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 65
Possessive Pronouns
145. The Possessive pronouns are: —
First PERSON. meus, my noster, our Srconp Person. tuus, thy, your vester, your TuirpD PeErRson. _ suus, his, her, its suus, their
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are so declined (see §§ 110-112). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in the vocative singular masculine.
Norr.— Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father; but patrem éius occidit, he killed his (somebody else’s) father.
a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular; sudpte.
b. A rare possessive ciiius (quéius), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (qui, quis). 1t may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation, but is usually the former.
e. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter sé or alter . . . alterum : —
alter alterius ova frangit, they break each other’s eggs (one . ... of the other). inter sé amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).
Demonstrative Pronouns
146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are: — hic, this; is, ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same;! and are thus declined: —
hic, this SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. hic haec hoc hi hae * haec Gen. hiius htius hiius horum harum hodrum Dart. huic huic huic his his his Acc. hunc hanc hic hos has haec Api. hoc hac hoc his his his
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly distinguishable. .
66 PRONOUNS [§ 146
Norr 1.—Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce. In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis: as, hiius-ce, his-ce. In early Latin-calone is retained in some of these (hérunc). The vowel in hic, hdc, was originally short, and perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ile and iste are sometimes found with — the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc; also illoc. See a, p. 67.
Nore 2.— For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibus is sometimes found; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.
is, that SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. is ea id el, ii (1) eae ea
GEN. éius éius éius eorum earum edrum Dart. ei el el els, iis (is) eis, iis(is) eis, ils (is) Acc. eum eam id eds eas ea
ABL. ed ea e0 eis, iis(is) eis, iis(is) eis, iis (is)
Notes 3.— Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fem.), and eabus or ibus (dat. plur.). For dative ei are found also éi and & (monosyllabic); &, &s, etc., also occur in the plural.
ille, that SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. ille illa illud illi illae illa Gen. _illius illius illius illdrum = illarum illdrum Dar. ili = illi ili illis illis illis Acc. illum illam illud illds illas illa Asi. illo illa illd illis illis illis
Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
Nore 4. — Ille replaces an earlier ollus (olle), of which several forms occur.
Nore 5.—Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
Note 6.— The forms illi, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found; also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
ipse, self SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. _ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. ipsius ipsius_ ipsius ipsdrum ipsdrum ipsdrum Dar. _ipsi ipsi ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsds ipsds ipsa
Asi. ipso ipsa ipsd ipsis ipsis ipsis
§ 146] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 67
Note 7.—Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain origin: ef. § 145. a), meaning se/f. The former part was originally declined, as in reapse (for ré eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus,
own selj', used for comic effect. Nore 8.—The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse,
eampse, cOpse, eapse (ablative). idem, the same
SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. idem eddem idem idem (el-) eaedem eddem Gen. Géiusdem Géiusdem éiusdem eOrundem eadrundem edrundem Dat. eidem eidem eidem elsdem or isdem Acc. eundem eandem idem edsdem easdem eddem ABL. eddem eadem eddem eisdem or isdem
Nore 9. —Idem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix-dem. The mas- culine idem is for tisdem; the neuter idem, however, is not for jiddem, but is a relic of an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d: as, eundem for eumdem, etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem.
a. Mlle and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c, shortened from -ce, in the following forms : —
SINGULAR M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. illic illaec __ illuc (illoc) istic istaec istuc (istoc) Acc. illunc illane __ illuc (illoc) istunc istanc istuc (istoc) ABL. illic illac illdc istdc istac istdc PLURAL N., Acc. —— —— illaec —_ — istaec
NortE 1.—The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations: as, hfiiusce, hunce, hdrunce, harunce, hésce, hisce (cf. § 146. nN. 1), illiusce, isce ; also with the interrogative -ne, in hécine, héscine, istucine, illicine, etc.
Norse 2.—By composition with ecce or em, behold! are formed eccum (for ecce eum), eccam, eccds, eccas; eccillum (for ecce illum); ellum (for em illum), ellam, ellés, ellas; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial. :
-b. The combinations htiusmodi (haiuscemodi), éiusmodi, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, rés éiusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort: cf. § 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff.
68 PRONOUNS [$§ 147-149
Relative Pronouns 147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who, which, is thus declined :—
SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. ciius ciius ciius quorum quarum qudrum Dar. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quam quod quoés quas quae ABL. quod qua quo quibus quibus quibus
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid, what? is declined in the Singular as follows : —
M., F. N. Nom. quis quid GEN. chius chius Dart. cui cui Acc. quem quid ABL. quo quo
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender, but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
b. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what bind of ? what? which? is declined throughout like the Relative : —
SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE quis vocat, who calls ? qui hom6 vocat, what man calls ? quid vidés, what do you see? quod templum vidés, what temple do you see?
Note. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person: as, qui ndmi- nat mé? who calls my name ? quis diés fuit? what day was it? quis homd? what man? but often qui hom6? what kind of man? nescid qui sis, J know not who you are.
c. Quisnam, pray, who? is an emphatic interrogative. It has both sub- stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and qui, any, are declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com- monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine :—
§§ 149-151] COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69
SUBSTANTIVE : quis, any one; quid, anything. ADJECTIVE: qui, qua (quae), quod, any.
a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively. b. The indefinites quis and quiare rare except after si, nisi, né, and num, and in compounds (see § 310. a, b).
Norte. — After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec- tive (cf. § 148. b. N.).
Case-Forms of gui and quis
150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same (compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the mas- culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qua-. The interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
a. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quéius, quoi.
6. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combi- nation quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
ce. A nominative plural qués (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative and ablative quis (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the abla- tive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143. /): as, quécum, quicum, quibuscum.
Note. — But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quo (uy. iv. 9).
Compounds of guts and qui 151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word: as, quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever ; ciiiuscumque, etc.
Nore. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, qualiscumque, of whatever sort ; quandécumque (also rarely quanddque), whenever ; ubi- cumque, wherever.
b. In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and qudqud.
Nore 1.—Rareforms are quemquem and quibusquibus; an ablative quiqui is some- times found in early Latin; the ablative feminine quaqua is both late and rare. Cuieui occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
Nore 2.— Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative quéqué, which is more commonly an adjective,
70 PRONOUNS [§ 151
e. The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; quivis, quilibet, any you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive) and quod- (adjective) : —
quidam quaedam quiddam (quoddam)
quivis quaevis quidvis (quodvis) Quidam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular (quendam, m.; quandam, Fr.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, M., N.; quarundam, F.).
d. The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quae- piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective); the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine; the neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only; there is no plural. Ullus, -a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
e, The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjec. tive), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae except in the nominative plural feminine : —
SINGULAR M. FE. N. Nom. aliquis (aliqui) aliqua aliquid (aliquod) GEN. alictiius alicdius alicdius Dat. alicui alicui alicui - Acc. aliquem aliquam aliquid (aliquod) ABL. aliqué aliqua aliqué PLURAL Nom. aliqui aliquae aliqua Gen. aliquérum aliquarum aliquérum Dat. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus Acc. aliquos aliquas aliqua ABL. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus
Nors. — Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.
f. The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqui (adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
Nore. —Ecquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the nominative and accusative only.
g- The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal : as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined
§§ 151, 152] CORRELATIVES 71 like the interrogative quis, qui: — substantive, quisque, quidque; adjective, quique, quaeque, quodque.
In the compound tinusquisque, every single ene, both parts are declined (genitive uniuschiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even separated by other words : —
né in ind quidem quique (Lael. 92), not even in a single one.
h. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective chius (-a, -um), older quéius, whose ; and a patrial cfids (chiat-), of what country.
é. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 152). Indefinite com- pounds are quantuscumque’and qualiscumque (see § 151. a).
Correlatives
152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives.
They are shown in the following table: —
Demon. REt. InTERROG. Inver. REL. InDEF. is qui quis ? quisquis aliquis that who who ? whoever some one tantus quantus quantus ? quantuscumque aliquantus so great how (as) great how great? however great some talis qualis qualis ? qualiscumque oe such as of what sort? of whatever kind ibi ubi ubi? ubiubi alicubi there where where ? wherever somewhere e6 quo quo? quoqud aliqué thither whither whither ? whithersoever (to) somewhere ea qua qua? quaqua aliqua that way which way which way ? whithersoever somewhere inde unde unde ? undecumque alicunde thence whence whence ? whencesoever from somewhere tum cum quando ? quanddcumque aliquando then when when ? whenever at some time tot quot quot ? quotquot aliquot so many as how many ? however many some, several totiéns quotiéns quotiéns ? quotiénscumque aliquotiéns so often as how often ? however often at several times
72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB —__é[$§ 153-156
VERBS CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, and Number.
a. The Voices are two: Active and Passive.
6. The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In- finitive.1 :
Norte. — The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in distinction from the Infinitive.
ec. The Tenses are six, viz.: —
1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
e. The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural.
Noun and Adjective Forms
155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb: —
a. Four Participles,? viz.: —
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.’
6. The Gerund: this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension, used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
c. The Supine: this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-i)* singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb (§ 451).
2 The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (§ 158. d). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle. 4 Originally locative.
§§ 156, 157] VOICES AND MOODS 73
SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB Voices
156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor- respond to the active and passive in English; but —
a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning : — ferré accingor, I gird myself with my sword. Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself). induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.
Nore. — This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt- less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).
6. Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. These are called Deponents (§ 190): as, hortor, J exhort; sequor, J follow. c. Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect tenses; these are called Semi-Deponents: as, auded, audére, ausus sum, dare.
Moods 157. The Moods are used as follows: —
a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga- tions: as, —valésne? valed, are you well? I am weil.
6. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi- tions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should ;? sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic examples of its use are the following : —
eamus, let us go; né abeat, let him not depart. adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see). tii né quaesieris, do not thou inquire.
beatus sis, may you be blessed.
quid morer, why should I delay ?
nescid quid scribam, I know not what to write.
si moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (d@pdnere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite meaning. Thus, J may write is often not scribam (subjunctive), but licet mihi scribere; J can write is possum scribere; J would write is scribam, scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; J should write, (if, etc.), scriberem (si) .. ., or (implying duty) oportet mé scribere,
74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 157, 158
c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command ; but the Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450): —
liber est, he shall be free. né ossa legitd, do not gather the bones.
d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or complement of another verb (§§ 452,456.N.). In special constructions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.).
Nors. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ff.
Participles 158. The Participles are used as follows : —
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing; as, vocins, call- ing ; legentés, reading. (For its inflection, see egéns, § 118.)
b. The Future Participle (ending in -irus) is oftenest used to ex- _ press what is likely or about to happen: as, réctiirus, about to rule ; auditirus, about to hear.
Norr. — With the tenses of esse, to be, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 195): as, urbs est casiira, the city is about to fall; mansirus eram, I was going to stay.
c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses : —
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle: . as, téctus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas: sive: as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called.
Norr. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For substitutes see §§ 492, 493.
d. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses : — 1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or propriety (ought or must): as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
Notrr. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb fo be (esse) it forms the Second Periphrastic Conjugation: déligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (For examples, see § 503 ff.)
+
§§ 159-162] TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB 75
Gerund and Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows: —
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -~ing (§ 502): as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.
Nors. — The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. « A corresponding nomi- native is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is use- ful; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.
b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. 6), found only in the accusative ending in -tum, -sum, and the dative or abla- tive ending in ti, -si.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -i after adjec- tives (§§ 509, 510): —
vénit spectatum, he came to see; mirabile dicti, wonderful to tell.
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in English: —
a. Of continued action, 1. Present: scribd, I write, I am writing, I do write. 2. ImperFect: scribébam, I-wrote, I was writing, I did write. 3. Furure: scribam, I shall write.
b. Of completed action,
4, Perrect: scripsi, I have written, I wrote. 5. PLupeRFEcT: scripseram, I had written. 6. Fururre Perrect: scripserd, I shall have written.
_ 161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per- fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as, scripsi, J have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he wrote.
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend- ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 449.
.
76 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 168
PERSONAL ENDINGS
163. Verbs have regular terminations! for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. ‘These are:
ACTIVE. PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. -m(-6): am-6, J love. -x(-or): amo-r, J am loved. Biv-A2 ama-s, thou lovest. -ris (-re): améa-ris, thou art loved. 3. -t: ama-t, he loves. -tur: ama-tur, he is loved. PLURAL 1. -mus: ama-mus, we love. -mur: ama-mur, we are loved. 2. -tis: amia-tis, you love. -mini: ama-mini, you are loved. 3, -mt: ama-nt, they love. -ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved. a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations * : — Sine. 1. -i: amiay-i, I loved. 2. -is-ti: amavy-is-ti, thou lovedst. 3. -i+t: amiav-i-t, he loved. Privr. 1. -i-mus: amavy-i-mus, we loved. 2. -is-tis: amav-is-tis, you loved. 5. -érunt (-€re): § amavy-érunt (-ére), they loved. 6. The Imperative has the following terminations : — Present ACTIVE Singular Plural 2. —: ama, love thou. -te: ama-te, love ye. Furure AcTIvE 2. -t6: ama-to, thou shalt love. -tite: améa-tote, ye shall love. 3. -t0: améa-to, he shall love. -nto: ama-nto, they shall love.
1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem (cf. § 36). But the ending -mini in the second person plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -Hevos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The per- sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominatiye -ns).
2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages, and of uncertain origin.
8 Of these terminations -i1 is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is-tis, -ti and -tis are personal endings; for -is-, see § 169. c. nN. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -érunt and -ére are also of doubtful origin, but the former contains the personal ending -nt.
§§ 163, 164] } THE THREE STEMS TT
Singular PRESENT PASSIVE Plural 2. -re: amia-re, be thou loved. -mini: améa-mini, be ye loved.
Furure Passive 2. -tor: améa-tor, thou shalt be loved. a — 8. -tor: améa-tor, he shall be loved. -ntor: ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
FoRMS OF THE VERB The Three Stems
164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems, called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (8) the Supine stem. 1. On the Present stem are formed —
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive. é The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active. The Perfect Infinitive Active.
8. On the Supine stem are formed ! —
a. The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the verb sum, be, to make —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
b. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make the Future Active Infinitive.
c. The Supine in -um and-i. The Supine in -um combines with iri to make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a).
Nore. — The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive (as, amatus fore). For fore (futiirum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a.
1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suflix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5). Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tiira, etc., see § 238. 6. n.1), were felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingd, we have pictum, pictus, pictirus, pictor, pictira; from rided, risum (for {rid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risiirus, risid, risor, risibilis.
78 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$$ 165, 166
VERB-ENDINGS
165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
1. The Srem (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or development of it.
2. The EnpING, consisting of —
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 169). 2. the Personal Ending (see § 168).
Thus in the verb voca-ba-s, you were calling, the root is voc, modified into the verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the ending -bas becomes the imperfect tense vocabas; and this ending consists of the tense-sign ba- and the personal ending (-s) of the second person singular.
166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are —
ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT PRESENT Sine. 1. -3 ar -m -or -r 2. -s 8e2|-8 -tis (-re) 83 -ris (-re) 3. -t s se | -t -tur &3 -tur Prior. 1. -mus $3 | -mus -mur ote -mur 2. -tis S22 | -tis -mini & 3 | -mini 3. -nt 75 | -nt -ntur -ntur IMPERFECT IMPERFECT Sine. 1. -ba-m -re-m -ba-r -re-r 2. -ba-s -ré-s -ba-ris (-re) -ré-ris (-re) 3. -ba-t -re-t - ba-tur -ré-tur Piour. 1. -ba-mus -ré-mus -ba-mur -ré-mur 2. -ba-tis -ré-tis -ba-mini -ré-mini 3. -ba-nt -re-nt ~ba-ntur -re-ntur INDICATIVE INDICATIVE FuTURE FuturE I, 1 Ill, IV I, TI, rv! Sine. 1. -b-6 2% ( -a-m -bo-r P -a-t 2. bi-s ‘4 a e -é-s ~be-ris (-re) : g -€-ris (-re) 3. -bi-t S222 | et -bi-tur & = | --tur Puur. 1. -bimus 93% 4 | -2-mus -bi-mur 3 P -é-mur 2.-bitis 222 | -Ctis -bi-mini 84 | mini 8.-bunt 58838 | -ent -bu-ntur -e-ntur
1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 171).
§ 166] VERB-ENDINGS 79
Active Passive INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE PERFECT PERFECT Sine. 1. -i -eri-m t ¢ sum . gim 2. -is-ti -eri-s z ge es sis 3. -i-t -eri-t est sit Puor. 1. -i-mus -eri-mus ti (-ta sumus simus 2. -is-tis -eri-tis wt tae, estis sitis 3. -éru-nt (-ére) -eri-nt - sunt sint PLUPERFECT PLUPERFECT Sine. 1. -era-m -isse-m eram essem 2. -era-s -issé-s -tus(-ta, eras essés @ -tum 3. -era-t -isse-t erat esset Puor. 1. -era-mus -issé-mus 2 eramus essémus 2. -era-tis -issé-tis ti (-tae, eratis essétis 3 5 ; -ta) . ~era-nt -isse-nt erant essent Future PERFECT Future PEeRrFectT Sine. 1. -er-6 ero 2. -eri-s = oe eris -tum 8. -eri-t erit Puior. 1. -eri-mus erimus 2. -eri-tis ig eritis 3. -eri-nt- erunt IMPERATIVE PRESENT PRESENT Sine. 2. —— Piur. 2. -te Sine. 2. -re Prior. 2. -mini Future FuTURE 945 2. -tote 2. -tor 3. -t6 8. -ntd 3. -ter 3. -ntor
For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the verb is here added.
INFINITIVE Pres. -re (Pres, stem) I, U, IV. -fi; 11. -1 Perr. -isse (Perf. stem) -tus (-ta, -tum) esse Fur. _-tiirus (-a, -um) esse -tum iri PARTICIPLES gl Pres. -unas, -ntis ss Perr. -tus, -ta, -tum Fer. _ -tirus, -a, -um Ger. -ndus, -nda, -ndum GERUND SUPINE
-ndi. -nd6, -ndum, -ndé -tum, -ti
80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 167, 168
167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings -m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, amet (for older amé+), habe-t (for habé-+), mone-nt, mone-ntur.
168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres- ent Stem as follows: —!
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. Thus, — present stem ara-: ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
b. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, ete. (originally a com- plete verb) is added to the present stem: as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus.
Norsr.— The form tbam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU (ef. fui, futiirus, giw, English be, been), and meant Iwas. This was added to a com- plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in J was a-seeing; hence vidé-bam. The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167).
c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar suffix, -b6, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem: as, ara-b6, ara-bis, moné-bd.
Norsr. — The form }b6 was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in 0. N.
d. In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the terminations -am, -és, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-és, audi-am, audi-és) are really sub- junctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.
e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a form of the present stem ending in 6- or 4-, which was shortened in certain forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, amé-s, teg4-mus, tega-nt.
Nors 1.— The vowel é (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-é-s) is an inherited subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened. The 4 of the other conjugations (mone-a-s, reg-d-s, audi-a-s) is of uncertain origin.
Norr 2.—In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -is, etc. occurs: as, sim, sis, simus, velim, velis, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the Indo- European optative mood-sign yé- (cf. siem, siés, siet, §170. b. n.). The vowel has been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
f. In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -rés, etc. is added to the present stem: as, ama-rem, ama-rés, moné-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem.
Norr.— The stem element -ré- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of
Italic. Ther is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se-m, es-sé-s) changed to r between two vowels (§ 15. 4). The é is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
1 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad- ’ ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent speech; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or ef the Latin language itself.
§§ 169, 170] VERB-ENDINGS 81
169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are made from the Perfect Stem as follows : —
a. In the Perfect Indicative the endings -i, -isti, etc. are added directly to the perfect stem: as, am@y-isti, téx-istis.
b. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amav-eram, monu-eras, téx-erat.
Nore. — This seems to represent an older f-is-Am etc. formed on the analogy of
the Future Perfect in -erd (older f-is-O: see ¢ below) and influenced by eram (imperfect of sum) in comparison with eréd (future of sum).
c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -er6, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amay-erd, monu-eris, téx-erit.
Notes. — This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob- ably in f-is-6. The-is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of the perfect indicative (vid-is-ti), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is-se), and in the plu- perfect subjunctive (vid-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem vowel.
d. In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amay-erim, monu-eris, téx-erit.
Notrr.— This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older -is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). Thei after r is the optative mood-sign i
shortened (see § 168. e. N.*). Forms in -is, -it, -imus, -itis, are sometimes found. The shortening in -is, -imus, -itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -issés, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amay-issem, monu-issés, téx-isset.
Note. — Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica- tive in f-is-Am (later -er-am, see b), and influenced by essem (earlier fessém) in its relation to eram (earlier tesam).1
The Verb Sum
170. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor- tance for the inflection of other verbs.
1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or ‘verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of com- position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imita- tion of such processes. Thus vidébamus is made by adding to vidé-, originally a signifi- cant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form ;bamus, not by inserting ~ba- between vidé- and -mus (§ 168. b).
82 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 170
Principat Parts: Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse, Perfect Indicative fui, Future Participle futirus. Supine Stem fut-
PRESENT STEM es- PERFECT STEM fu-
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT Sinc. 1. sum, J am sim } 2. &s, thou art (you are) sis 3. est, he (she, it) is sit Pivur. 1. sumus, we are simus 2. estis, you are Sitis 3. sunt, they are sint IMPERFECT Since. 1. eram, I was essem 2. eras, you were essés 3. erat, he (she, it) was esset Puivur. 1. eramus, we were essémus 2. eratis, you were essétis 3. erant, they were essent Future Sine. 1. eré, J shall be 2. eris, you will be 3. erit, he will be Piur. 1. erimus, we shall be 2. eritis, you will be 3. erunt, they will be PERFECT Since. 1. fui, J was (have been) fuerim 2. fuisti, you were fueris 3. fuit, he was fuerit Prur. 1. fuimus, we were fuerimus 2. fuistis, you were fueritis — 3. fuérunt, fuére, they were fuerint PLUPERFECT Sine. 1. fueram, J had been fuissem 2. fueras, you had been fuissés 3. fuerat, he had been fuisset
1 All translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given; see § 157. b. ;
§ 170] THE VERB SUM 83
Prur. 1. fueramus, we had been fuissémus fF 2. fueratis, you had been fuissétis ‘ 3. fuerant, they had been fuissent git Future PEerFect | Since. 1. fueré, J shall have been Prur. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been 2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you will have been 3. fuerit, he will have been 3. fuerint, they will have been IMPERATIVE PRESENT Sine. 2. &s, be thou Priur. 2. este, be ye Future 2. est6, thou shalt be 2. est6te, ye shall be 3. est6, he shall be 3. sunt, they shall be INFINITIVE
Present esse, to be Perrecr fuisse, to have been Furure futiirus esse or fore, to be about to be
PARTICIPLE FurTurE futiirus, -a, -um, about to be
a. For essem, essés, etc., forem, forés, foret, forent, are often used; so fore for futiirus esse.
b. The Present Participle, which would regularly be fsins,! appears in the adjective in-sins, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-séns, prae-séns. The simple form éns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin asa participle or abstract noun, in the forms éns, being ; entia, things which are.
Norr.—Old forms are:—Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa- tive present, see § 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, siés, siet, sient; fuam, fuds, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fivi- mus; Pluperfect, fiivisset.
The root of the verb sum is Es, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see § 15. 4), and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, — the Sanskrit sya@m corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) : —
SANSKRIT GREEK LATIN LITHUANIAN as-mi sydm (optative) gup.? s-um —_ sim (siem) es-mi as-i syas éool? es Sis (siés) es-i as-ti syat éore es-t sit (siet) es-ti
smas syama éouév s-umus simus es-me stha sydata éaré es-tis sitis es-te s-anti syus évtl? s-unt sint (sient) es-ti
The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek @gv, and with the English be.
1 Compare Sankrit sant, Greek wy. 2 Old form.
84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [$§ 171-178
The Four Conjugations
171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distin- guished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present Infinitive Active : —
CoNnJUGATION INFINITIVE ENDING STEM First -dre (amare) a Second -6re (monére) é Third -ére (regére) é Fourth -ire (audire) i
The Principal Parts
172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems which determine its conjugation throughout, are —
1. The Present Indicative (as, am6)
2. The Present Infinitive (as, ama-re)
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amay-i), showing the Perfect Stem.
4, The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat-um), or, if that form is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat-irus), showing the Supine Stem.
} showing the Present Stem.
173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in the following : —
First Conjugation : —.
Active, am6, amare, amAvi, amatum, love. Passive, amor, amari, amatus. Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-, Supine Stem amat-.
Second Conjugation : —
Active, déled, délére, délévi, délétum, blot out. Passive, déleor, déléri, délétus. Present Stem délé-, Perfect Stem délév-, Supine Stem délét-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic é- rarely appears in the perfect and perfect participle. ‘The common type is, therefore : — Active, moned, monére, monui, monitum, warn.
Passive, moneor, monéri, monitus. : Present Stem moné-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.
§§ 173, 174] PRESENT STEM 85
Third Conjugation : —
Active, tego, tegére, téxi, téctum, cover. Passive, tegor, tegi, téctus. Present Stem teg&-, Perfect Stem téx-, Supine Stem téct-.
Fourth Conjugation : —
Active, audid, audire, audivi, auditum, hear. Passive, audior, audiri, auditus. Present Stem audi-, Perfect Stem audiv-, Supine Stem audit-.
a. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or more different conjugations (cf. § 189): —
1, 2, dom6, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 2, 3, maned, manére, m&nsi, mansum, remdin. 8, 4, petd, petére, petivi, petitum, seek. 4, 3, vincid, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem conforms.
Present Stem
174, The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main classes of verbs: —
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (°/o, in Latin ify) appeared between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for fleg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for fleg-o-nti) .1
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root: as, es-t, es-tis (root Es)?, di-mus (d6, root DA), fer-t (ferd, root FER).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into one of the four ‘‘regular’’ conjugations. Even the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two classes : —
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the per- sonal endings. — These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed in various ways (§ 176), but always ends in a short vowel °/, (Latin i4). Examples are tego (stem teg*/,-), sternimus (stem stern®/,-) for fster-no-mos, plectunt (stem plect*/,-) for jplec-to-nti. So ndscd (stem gndsc®/,-) for gné-sc-6. Verbs like ndscd became the type for a large number of verbs in -scd, called inceptives (§ 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix y°/,-, which already contained the thematic vowel °*/,.— Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except u) came in contact with the suffix y*/- suffered contraction so as to present a long vowel 4-, 6-,i-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic °/, disappeared. These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and
1 Cf. Aéy-e-re, Aéy-o-wev; Doric Aéy-0-vTe. 2 Cf. éo-rl, éo-ré (see p. 83, note).
86 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 174-176
adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make verbs: as, macadamize, modernize. ; :
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact with the suffix y®/o- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth, and some have forms of both. Examples are: — (con)spicié (-spicére) for }speky0 ; venio (venire) for t(g)vem-y6 ; cupid, cupére, but cupivi; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however, plué (pluere) for tplu-yd; and hence, by analogy, acud (acuere) for tacu-yo.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which is practically represented in §§ 175, 176.
175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the Present Infinitive : — ama-re, stem ama-; moné-re, stem moné-; tegé-re, stem teg&-; audi-re, stem audi-.
176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regu- lar verbs in one of the following ways : —
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (a-, 6-, i-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, voca-re (voc), moné-re (MEN, cf. memini), sopi-re (sop).
Notrs.— Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun- stems on the pattern of older formations (see § 174).
6. In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel %? to the root. In Latin this % usually appears as i/,, but e is preserved in some forms. Thus, tegi-s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG); but tegé-ris (tegé-re), alé-ris.
1. The stem-vowel & (i/,) may be preceded by n, t, or sc:? as, tem-ni-tis, tem-nu-nt, tem-né-ris (TEM) ; plec-ti-s (PLEC) ; cré-sci-tis (CRE).
2. Verbs in -i6 of the Third Conjugation (as, capid, capére) show in some forms an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i-unt (cap), fug-i-unt (rue).
c. The root may be changed —
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication) : as, gi-gn-e-re (cEN). 2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n): as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e-re (TAG).
1 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by adding the suffix -y®/,- toa noun-stem. The4 of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending of the noun (as, planta-re, from planta-, stem of planta). The é of the Second and thei of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem with the ending -y*/,-. Thus albére is from alb°/,-, stem of albus; finire is from fini-, stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel.
2 This is the so-called ‘‘ thematic vowel.”’
F i In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -n®/,-, -t®/-, sc®/-.
§§ 176, 177] PERFECT STEM 87
d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u-: as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-d-re (aestu-s); cf. acud, acuere.?
Nore 1.— A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re, fer-t; es-se; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.
Norts 2.—In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem- vowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (mir).
e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem is generally identical with the root: as, da-mus (DA), flé-mus (stem flé-, root form unknown).? But others, as rui-mus (rv), are formed with an addi- tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
Notre.— Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (sTA, cf. stare).
Perfect Stem
177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows : —
a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem: as, voca-y-i, audi-v-i; or to the root: as, son-u-i (sona-re, root SON), mon-u-I (moné-re, MON treated as a root).®
Norr.—In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as, stra-v-i (sternd, sTAR), spré-v-I (spernd, SPAR).
b. The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s-i (CARP), téx-i (for tég-s-, TEG).*
Notr.— The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: as, finx-i (FIG, present stem fingé-), sanx-i (sAc, present stem sanci-),
c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally with &, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-I (cadé, CAD), to-tond-i (tonded, TOND).
Nors.— In fid-i (for f fe-fid-i, find-5), scid-i (for f sci-scid-i, scind6), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root.
d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change: as, lég-i (lég-5), Em-i (m-5), vid-i (vid-e-5), fug-i (fiig-i-d), Eg-i (Ag-0).
e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in the present tense: as, vert-i (vert-0), soly-i (soly-0).
f. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or intapinary stem: as, peti-v-i (as if from {peti+, tpeti-re, Per).
1 These are either old formations in -y*/,- in which the y has disappeared after the u (as, statuéd for jstatu-y6) or later imitations of such forms.
2 In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with the root; in others the ending -y*/,- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction.
8 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.
4 The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for {dics-i) corresponds te the Greek aorist @-de¢-a (for fé-derxo-a).
88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 178, 179
Supine Stem
178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s)—
a. To the present stem: as, ama-t-um, délé-t-um, audi-t-um.
b. To the root, with or without i: as, cap-t-um (capid, CAP), moni-t-um (moned, MON used as root), cds-um (for tcad-t-um, CAD), léc-t-um (LEG).
NotE 1.—By phonetic ep at and tt become s (défénsum, versum for {dé-fend- t-um, tvert-t-um); bt becomes pt (scrip-t-um for {scrib-t-um); gt becomes ct (réc-t-um for freg-t-um).1
Notsr 2.— The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine: as, tinc-t-um (tingd, ria), tén-s-um for jtend-t-um (ten-d-6, TEN).
Note 3.— The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, peti-t-um (as if from fpeti-d, tpeti-re, PET).
Notr 4.—A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d and t: as, fal-s-um (falld), pul-s-um (pelld).
Forms of Conjugation
179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can be made are as follows: —
a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add 4- to the root to form the present stem: as, ama-re; with a few whose root ends in a (ffor, fa-ri; fl6, fla-re; n6, na-re; std, sta-re).
1. The stem-vowel 4- is lost before -6: as, amd = tam4-(y)6; and in the present subjunctive it is changed to €: as, amé-s, amé-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present stem: as, am4-v-I, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add é- to the root to form the present stem: as, moné-re; with a few whose root ends in 6; as, fle-6, flé-re; ne-0, né-re; re-or, ré-ri (cf. § 176. e).
ae 61 the present subjunctive 4 is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-a-s, mone-a-mus (cf. § 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t, to the present stem: as, délé-v-i, délé-t-um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in 1: as, mon-t-i, moni-t-um. For lists, see § 210.
1 For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10. 2 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
§ 179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add & to the root to form the present stem: as, tegé- re, capé-re; with a few whose root ends in e: as, se-ré-re for tse-se-re (reduplicated from sx, cf. satum).
1. The stem-vowel é is regularly lost before -6, and becomes u? before -nt and i before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-6, tegi-t, tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes €: as, tegé- bam, tegé-bas, etc.; in the future, é: as, tegé-s (except in the first person singular, tega-m, tega-r); in the present subjunctive, 4: as, tega-s.
Verbs in -id lose the i before a consonant and also before i, i, and é (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). Thus, —capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ébat, capi-és, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it (not tcapi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga- tion. See lists, §211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, but from the root.
d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the root to form the present stem: as, audi-re.* In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audi-v-i, audi- t-um.’ Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive : as, audi-unt, audi-ébat, audi-étis, audi-at, the i being regularly short before a vowel.
e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the same as the present stem: as, ama, moné, tegé, audi. But verbs in -i6 of the third conjugation omit i: as, capé (not fcapie).
f. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu- larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the perfect stem: as, amav-i, amav-eram, amdv-erd, amav-erim, amav-issem, amav-isse.
g- The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con- tinued action of the verb esse: as, perfect amatus sum; pluperfect amatus eram, etc.
1 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus,
2 A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-s), and a few roots yertape end ini; but these are not distinguishable in form,
8 For exceptions, see § 212. b.
90 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 180
Synopsis of the Verb
180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar- ranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amé, a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type.
PRINCIPAL Parts: Active, am6, amare, amayi, amatum. Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum. ‘
PRESENT STEM ama- PERFECT STEM amav- SUPINE STEM amat~
ACTIVE PASSIVE Present stem, ama- INDICATIVE PREs. amo amo-r IMPERF. ama-bam ama-bar For. ama-b6 ama-bor SUBJUNCTIVE PREs. ame-m ame-r IMPERF. ama-rem ama-rer IMPERATIVE PREs. ama ama-re Fot. . ama-t6 ama-tor INFINITIVE PREs. ama-re ama-ri PARTICIPLE PREs. ama-ns : GERUNDIVE ama-ndus GERUND ama-ndi Perfect stem, amav- Supine stem, amat- 4 INDICATIVE PERF. amav-i amat-us sum PLUPERF. amav-eram amat-us eram Fort. Perr. amav-ero amat-us er6 SUBJUNCTIVE PERF. amav-erim amat-us sim PLUPERF. amav-issem amat-us essem INFINITIVE Perr. amav-isse Supine stem, amat- INFINITIVE PERF. amat-us esse For. amat-iirus esse amat-um iri PARTICIPLE For. amat-iirus Perr. amat-us
SUPINE
amat-um amat-i
§§ 181-183] PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION 91
Peculiarities of Conjugation
181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
a. Perfects in -Avi, -€vi, Ovi, often contract the two vowels into 4, 6, 4, respectively: as, amasse for amavisse; amarim for amaverim; amassem for amavissem ; cOnsuérat for cOnsuéverat; fléstis for flévistis; ndsse for ndvisse. So in perfects in -vi, where the visa part of the present stem: as, commorat for commiverat.
Notr.— The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amavi) is never contracted, the third very rarely.
b. Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels ex-
cept before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect :— audieram for audiveram ; audisse for audivisse ; audisti for audivisti; abiit for abivit ; abiérunt for abivérunt.
Nots 1.— The forms siris, sirit, siritis, sirint, for siveris etc. (from siverd or siverim), are archaic.
NotrE 2.— In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner, when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dixti for dixisti (k=cs); traxe for traxisse; vasti for évasisti; vixet for vixisset; érépsémus for érépsissémus; décésse for décessisse. ‘These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.
182. Four verbs, — dicé, diicd, facid, ferdé, —with their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dic, diic, fac, fér; but compounds in -ficid retain it, as, confice.
Nortr.— The imperative forms dice, diice, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
a. For the imperative of scid, the future form scit6 is always used in the singular, and scitdte usually in the plural.
183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry:
1. In the fourth conjugation, -ibam, -ib6, for -iébam, -iam (future). These forms are regular in e6, go (§ 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and vol6 and their compounds (§§ 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -s6: as, faxim, fax6, iuss6, recépsd (= fécerim etc.) ; ausim (= ausus sim).
4, In the passive infinitive, -ier: as, vocdrier for vocdri; agier for agi.
5. A form in -dss6, -dssere is found used as a future perfect: as, am4ssis, from amé; levassé, from levé ; impetrassere, from impetré; itidicdssit, from iidicé (cf. § 263. 2. b. N.).
92 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§ 184
FIRST CONJUGATION (@-STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE
184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add 4- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in a-. The verb ams, love, is conjugated as follows: —
Principat Parts: Present Indicative am6, Present Infinitive amare, Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatum.
PRESENT STEM ama- PERFECT STEM amay- SUPINE STEM amat- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT am6,} I love, am loving, do love amem ? amas, thou lovest (you love) amés amat, he (she, it) loves amet amamus, we love amémus amatis, you love , amétis amant, they love ament IMPERFECT amabam, I loved, was loving, did love amarem amabas, you loved amarés amabat, he loved amaret amabamus, we loved amarémus amabatis, you loved amarétis amabant, they loved amarent FUTURE
amab6, J shall love amabis, you will love amabit, he will love
amabimus, we shall love amabitis, you will love amabunt, they will love
1 The stem-vowel 4- is lost before -6, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes €-. 2 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction. Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§ 184] FIRST
INDICATIVE
amiavi, J loved, have loved amavisti, you loved
amiavit, he loved
amavimus, we loved amavistis, you loved amavérunt (-6re), they loved
CONJUGATION 93
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
amaverim amaveris amaverit amaverimus amaveritis amaverint
PLUPERFECT
amaveram, J had loved amaveras, you had loved amiaverat, he had loved
amaveramus, we had loved amaveratis, you had loved amaverant, they had loved
amavissem amavissés amavisset amavissémus amavissétis amavissent
Future PERFECT
Singular
amiver6, I shall have loved
amaveris, you will have